THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 


<J 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


By 
WILLIAM  SKARSTROM,    M.  D. 

Associate    Professor    of  Physical   Education 
Wellesley  College,  Wellesley,  Mass. 


AMERICAN  PHYSICAL  EDUCATION  ASSOCIATION 

DISTRIBUTING  AGENT 

SPRINGFIELD,  MASS. 

1914 


COPYRIGHT,  1914 

BY 
WILLIAM  SKARSTROM 


GV 

363 
PREFACE. 

For  a  number  of  years  some  of  my  friends  had  been  asking  me 
to  write  on  the  subject  of  Gymnastic  Teaching,  and  finally  Dr. 
J.  H.  McCurdy  persuaded  me  to  undertake  the  task.  Like  "Gym- 
nastic Kinesiology"  it  was  done,  with  the  exception  of  the  Appen- 
dix, in  the  form  of  monthly  contributions  to  the  PHYSICAL 
EDUCATION  REVIEW  during  the  past  three  years. 

In  this  presentation  I  cannot  claim  to  have  added  anything  new 
to  the  subject.  Nor  have  I  tried  to  make  an  exposition  of  any 
particular  system.  It  is  merely  an  attempt  to  pick  out  and  eluci- 
date some  of  the  principles  underlying  all  gymnastic  work  and  to 
show  some  of  the  possibilities  of  their  varied  application  under 
different  conditions.  While  some  phases  of  the  subject,  such 
as  the  values  and  effects  of  the  work,  are  still  largely  in  the 
theory  stage,  the  practical  aspects  of  the  work — methods  and 
technique  of  teaching  it,  and  the  management  of  gymnastic  mate- 
rial— have  been  abundantly  tried  and  their  effectiveness  reason- 
ably well  proven.  Indeed,  the  part  of  the  discussion  which  deals 
with  this  side  of  the  subject  is  but  the  summary  of  results  of 
more  than  twenty  years  of  study,  observation  and  experience  in 
teaching  the  work  under  fairly  varied  conditions — in  the  Y.  M. 
C.  A.,  in  secondary  schools,  colleges  and  normal  schools. 

The  book  is  offered  to  teachers  and  students  of  physical  educa- 
tion with  the  hope  that  it  may  prove  helpful  in  the  adaptation  of 
gymnastic  work  to  all  kinds  of  conditions,  but  especially  with  a 
view  to  meeting  conditions  in  educational  institutions.  If  it  will 
contribute  to  a  broader,  more  liberal  point  of  view,  to  a  greater 
interest  in  and  more  effective  teaching  of  gymnastic  work,  and 
thus  to  a  fuller  realization  of  its  potential  values,  the  effort  will 
not  have  been  made  in  vain. 

My  grateful  acknowledgment  of  helpful  suggestions  would 
include  all  the  friends  with  whom  I  have  been  associated  during 
the  past  twenty-two  years.  Among  those  who  aroused  my  interest 
and  guided  me  during  my  first  years  of  teaching  are  Drs.  J.  H. 
McCurdy,  C.  J.  Enebuske  and  L.  Collin.  In  forming  my  point 
of  view  and  general  ideas  on  the  subject  I  owe  much  to  profitable 
discussion  with  these  friends  as  well  as  Drs.  L.  H.  Gulick,  G.  L. 
Meylan,  C.  W.  Crampton,  T.  D.  Wood,  F.  Leonard  and  others. 
In  the  systematizing  and  grading  of  apparatus  work  for  men  I 
received  much  help  from  Dr.  G.  L.  Meylan,  Mr.  J.  A.  Davis  and 
Mr.  A.  I.  Prettyman  while  engaged  in  teaching  the  work  at 
Columbia  University.  And  to  the  stimulating,  encouraging  and 
steadying  influence  of  Miss  Amy  Morris  Homans  I  shall  always 
attribute  a  large  part  of  whatever  success  I  may  have  attained 
in  teaching  the  practical  as  well  as  theoretical  side  of  the  subject. 

Wellesley,  June,  1914. 

674363 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 


PREFACE. 

I.  INTRODUCTION. 

Principles  of  selection  and  systematizing,  grading  and  progression  of 

activities  are  fundamental  in  education. 
Place   of  gymnastics  in  physical  education.     Diversity   of   theory   and 

method. 

The  element  of  definitcness  in  gymnastics. 
The  spirit  of  the  work  and  the  spirit  of  teaching. 

II.  GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

1.  SOME  ESSENTIALS  FOR  SUCCESSFUL  TEACHING. 

Personality   of  the   teacher. 
Knowledge  of  principles  and  methods. 

2.  CONTROL  AND  CLASS  MANAGEMENT. 

Incentives. 

Will   power. 

Interest:   Getting  and  keeping  in   touch  with   class. 

*  3.     DISCIPLINE  AND  ATTENTION.' 
4.     LEADERSHIP  AND  FRIENDLY  RELATIONS. 
Suggestion  and  ex-ample. 
•  Personal  relations  between  teacher  and  class. 

III.  METHODS  AND  TECHNIQUE. 

1.  FORMATIONS,  DISTRIBUTION  AND  POSITION  OF  CLASS  ON  THE  FLOOR. 

Variation  in  the  formation,  by  facings,  during  class  exercises. 

2.  GYMNASTIC  COMMANDS. 

Essential  features  of  commands. 

Different  kinds  of  commands. 

General  factors  in  the  use  of  commands. 

3.  THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  COMMANDS. 

The  preparatory  part  of  the  command. 

The  pause  in  the  command. 

The  final  part  of  the  command. 

The  use  of  the  numerals. 

Commands  for  stopping  rhythmic  exercises. 

Summary. 

4.  THE  ACTIVE  AND  RELAXED  GYMNASTIC  POSITIONS. 

5.  INSTRUCTION. 

Preparation  of  teacher. 

Presentation  of  exercises. 

Supplementary  instruction:  Cues,  admonitions  and  stimulation. 


vi  CONTENTS 

6.  CORRECTION. 

Systematic  observation  of  class  work. 
Causes  of  faults. 

Summary  of  methods  of  correcting. 
The  technique  of  manual  correction. 

7.  REVIEW  AND  SUMMARY  OF  METHODS  OF  TEACHING  DIFFERENT  TYPES 

OF  WORK. 

Exercises  of  the  indefinite  type. 
Methods  and  technique  of  teaching. 
The  definite  type  of  exercises. 
Methods  of  teaching. 
Rhythm  and  definiteness. 

IV.     SUBJECT-MATTER. 

1.  AIMS  AND  VALUES  OF  GYMNASTICS. 

(1)  The  hygienic  aim. 

(2)  The  educational  aim. 

Objective  and  subjective  motor  training. 
Good  posture  and  erect  carriage. 
Equalization  of  growth  and  development. 
Acquisition  of  useful  forms  of  agility. 
Mental,  moral  and  social  training. 

(3)  The  recreational  aspect  of  gymnastics. 

(4)  Adaptation  of  aims  to  conditions. 

2.  SELECTION. 

3.  CLASSIFICATION. 

(1)  Order  exercises. 

(2)  Leg  and  arm  exercises. 

(3)  Arching  movements. 

The  factors  which  determine  posture. 
Faulty  posture. 
Posture  training. 

(4)  Compensatory  movements. 

(5)  Lateral  trunk  exercises. 

(6)  Abdominal  exercises. 

(7)  Back  and  shoulder  blade  exercises. 

A.  Shoulder  blade  movements. 

Fixation  of  shoulder  girdle. 

B.  General  back  movements. 
(8).    Charges. 

(9)  Balance  exercises. 

( 10)  Suspension  exercises. 

(11)  Arm  support  exercises. 

(12)  Jumping  and  vaulting. 

(13)  Running  and  running  games. 

(14)  Respiratory  exercises. 

4.  THE  CONTENT  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  GYMNASTIC  LESSON. 

Proper  distribution  of  work. 

Warming  up. 

Progressive  organic  activity  as  guide. 

Totality  or  all-round  character. 

General  lesson  plan. 

Arrangement. 

Outline  of  series  of  free-standing  exercises. 


CONTENTS  vii 

Modifications. 

Variety  in  selection,  combination  and  sequence. 

The  apparatus  work. 

Running,  marching  and  breathing  exercises. 

Summary. 

5.  PROGRESSION. 

Progression  as  applied  to  gymnastic  lessons. 
Within  the  lesson.    From  lesson  to  lesson. 
Repetition. 

Principles  of  progression  of  free-standing  exercises. 
General  considerations. 
Types  and  their  relative  difficulty. 
Complexity. 

Combination  and  alternation. 
Speed. 
Rhythm. 

Derived  starting  positions. 

Terminology    of   starting   positions   and    the   movements   through 
which  they  are  reached. 

6.  APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES  OF  PROGRESSION  IN  THE  VARIOUS  CLASSES 

AND  TYPES  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES. 
Leg  and  arm  movements. 
Arching  movements. 
Compensatory  exercises. 
Lateral  trunk  exercises. 
Back  exercises. 

A.  Shoulder  blade  movements. 

B.  General  back  movements. 
Abdominal  exercises. 
Balance  exercises.        , 
Charges. 

7.  PROGRESSION  OF  APPARATUS  EXERCISES. 

General  considerations. 
Suspension  exercises. 
Arm  support  exercises. 
Jumping  and  vaulting. 

A.  Jumping. 

B.  Vaulting. 

c.     Swing  jumps. 

8.  PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS. 

Series  i.  High  School  Girls.     First  year. 

Series  2.  High  School  Girls.    Second  year. 

Series  j.  High  School  Boys.    First  year. 

Series  4.  High  School  Boys.    Second  year. 

Series  5.  College  Women.     First  year. 

Series  6.  College  Women.     Second  year. 

Series  7.  College  Men.     First  year. 

Series  8.  College  Men.    Second  year. 

V.    APPENDIX. 

1.     PROGRESSION  LISTS  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES. 
Leg  and  arm  movements. 

(1)  Foot  placings,  heel  raising,  etc. 

(2)  Knee  bending,  alternate  knee  bending,  side  lunge,  etc. 


viii  CONTENTS 

Arching  movements. 
Compensatory  movements. 
Lateral  trunk  exercises. 

(1)  Trunk  twistings. 

(2)  Side  bendings,  leg  flinging  sidew.,  etc. 
Back  and  shoulder  blade  movements. 
Abdominal  exercises. 

Balance  exercises. 

Arm  movements. 

Charges. 

Free-standing  jumps,  toe  jumps,  etc. 

2.     PROGRESSION  LISTS  OF  APPARATUS  EXERCISES. 
TERMINOLOGY. 

(1)  APPARATUS  EXERCISES  FOR  WOMEN. 

Horizontal  Ladder. 

High  Boom. 

Low  Boom. 

Double  Boom. 

Saddle  Boom. 

Vertical  Ropes. 

Window  Ladder. 

Rope  Ladders. 

Vaulting  Box. 

Side  Horse. 

Long  Horse. 

Buck. 

Parallel  Bars. 

High  Jumps.  , 

Broad  Jumps. 

(2)  APPARATUS  EXERCISES  FOR  MEN. 

Horizontal  Ladder. 
Suspended  Parallels. 
Vertical  Ropes. 
High  Horizontal  Bar. 
Low  Horizontal  Bar. 
Side  Horse. 
Buck. 

Parallel  Bars. 
High  Jumps. 
Broad  Jumps. 
Tumbling. 

REFERENCES. 
INDEX. 


GYMNASTIC   TEACHING. 


I.     INTRODUCTION. 


The  principles  of  selection  and  systematizing,  grading  and 
progression  of  activities  are  fundamental  in  all  education. 

The  complex  conditions  of  modern  civilized  life  necessitate  the 
employment  of  a  variety  of  means  and  an  increasing  amount  of 
time  in  preparing  the  youth  of  the  race  to  take  their  places  in  the 
community.  The  means  used  aim  to  produce  in  the  average  individ- 
ual the  greatest  possible  amount  of  adaptability  to  his  environ- 
ment, the  greatest  possible  efficiency  as  a  unit  in  the  social  struc- 
ture. To  attain  this  end  it  is  not  enough  that  he  be  sheltered  and 
nurtured  and  have  his  bodily  needs  supplied,  while  growth  and 
development — bodily,  mental  and  moral  (or  social) — are  left  to 
"nature,"  that  is,  to  haphazard  contact  with  the  environment. 
In  most  progressive  countries  such  education  is  considered  so 
inadequate  that  the  law  of  the  land  compels  the  individual  to 
submit  to  an  artificial  process,  a  kind  of  forcing  process,  intended 
to  give  him  at  least  the  rudiments  of  general  knowledge  and  such 
intellectual  and  moral  discipline  as  will  enable  him  to  become  a 
safe  and  useful  citizen. 

In  this  educational  process  the  agencies  used  are  selected  activi- 
ties, adapted  to  the  powers  of  the  individual  at  any  given  stage 
of  his  development.  These  activities  offer  a  certain  amount  of 
difficulty,  at  no  time  too  great  to  be  overcome,  but  so  gauged  to 
the  individual's  ability  that  success  may  only  be  attained  through 
concentrated  and  persistent  effort.  In  other  words,  the  activities, 
besides  being  carefully  selected  and  systematic,  are  graded  and 
progressive.  The  haphazard,  hit-or-miss  principle  of  learning 
by  blundering,  unguided  experience  is  too  wasteful  of  time  to 
be  of  use  in  this  training  process.  The  selection  aims  to  be  inclu- 
sive and  varied  enough  to  give  full  scope  to  all  the  growing  pow- 
ers of  the  individual.  The  ordering  and  progression  of  the  sub- 
jects and  the  methods  of  teaching  are  such  as  to  demand  sus- 
tained and  concentrated  attention,  careful  observation,  correct 
deduction  and  expression.  In  this  way  habits  of  logical  thinking 
and  rational  action  are  promoted  and  the  capacity  for  further 
growth  insured. 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

In  that  part  of  the  educational  process  which  comes  under  the 
head  of  physical  education,  the  same  general  purposes  are  aimed 
at.  Here  particular  attention  is  paid  to  instruction  in  the  care 
of  the  body,  to  the  formation  of  ideals  and  habits  of  healthy 
living.  Physical  education  also  aims  to  make  a  definite  contri- 
bution to  the  all-round  training  of 'the  individual.  It  gives  oppor- 
tunity for  and  guidance  in  those  bodily  activities  involving  the 
large  muscle  groups,  which  are  so  essential  for  the  proper  growth 
and  development  of  the  somatic  organs  and  of  the  bony  and  mus- 
cular systems,  as  well  as  of  all  the  fundamental  nerve  centers 
and,  indeed,  of  the  whole  central  nervous  system.  Such  neuro- 
muscular  training  is  recognized  as  basal  to  all  other  training. 

In  physical  education,  as  in  all  other  departments  of  the  edu- 
cational scheme,  the  principle  of  selection  is  applied.  Efforts  are 
made  to  select  those  activities  which  promise  the  greatest  returns 
in  health  and  social  training,  harmonious  bodily  growth  and  devel- 
opment, increased  neuro-muscular  efficiency.  Here,  as  every- 
where, there  is  some  diversity  of  opinion  regarding  the  values 
which  are  most  worth  striving  for,  to  the  attainment  of  which 
the  limited  time  and  resources  at  our  disposal  should  be  devoted. 
Again,  even  when,  in  the  main,  there  is  agreement  in  this  respect, 
there  are  different  theories  regarding  the  best  means  of  securing 
these  values :  such  as  selection  of  the  right  activities,  the  details 
of  management  and  methods  which  will  produce  the  surest  and 
quickest  results.  This  diversity  of  theory  and  procedure  is  no 
doubt  for  the  best,  as  out  of  it  will  probably  be  evolved,  eventu- 
ally (indeed  is  already  being  evolved),  the  underlying  principles 
which  should  guide  in  the  adaptation  of  the  work  to  different  con- 
ditions, groups  and  individuals. 

The  place  of  gymnastics  in  physical  education.  Diversity  of 
theory  conducive  to  growth,  even  though  it  lead  to  some  confusion 
and  ineffective  teaching. 

Of  the  activities  employed  in  physical  education  gymnastics 
have  offered,  and  still  do  offer,  large  scope  for  individual  initia- 
tive and  variation  in  the  selection  of  material,  in  definition,  in 
arrangement  and  in  methods  of  teaching.  Here,  too,  there  is 
abundant  need  as  well  as  opportunity  for  the  evolution  of  funda- 
mental principles.  Most  systems  of  gymnastics  represent  attempts 
to  embody  such  fundamental  principles.  At  any  rate,  they  may 
be  said  to  be  traditional  applications  of  certain  principles,  some 
of  which  may  be  fundamental  and  essential,  others  not.  Because 
they  are  traditional,  however — that  is,  associated  with  and  the 
outgrowth  of  a  certain  set  of  conditions  and  circumstances — they 
are  not  necessarily  suited  to  all  other  conditions.  In  each  there 


INTRODUCTION  3 

will  be  found  valuable  features — in  subject  matter,  procedure  or 
method — which  may  be  readily  adapted  to  and  included  in  any 
scheme  of  work  systematized  with  a  view  to  meet  new  or  special 
conditions.  Thus,  for  example,  the  definite,  clean-cut  character 
of  the  exercises  in  Swedish  gymnastics,  the  rhythmical  continuity 
of  German  and  Y.  M.  C.  A.  gymnastics,  and  much  of  the  appara- 
tus work  in  each,  are  features  which  will  probably  always  be 
deemed  desirable  and  made  use  of  in  any  effort  to  organize  and 
systematize  gymnastic  work  to  meet  conditions  in  this  country. 
A  distinct  American  system  of  gymnastics  may  some  day  be 
evolved,  but  with  our  present  political  and  educational  organiza- 
tion that  day  seems  as  yet  far  off.  In  the  meanwhile,  each  one 
must  solve  his  or  her  own  local  problem  by  modification  or  adap- 
tation of  the  principal  types  or  systems  of  gymnastics  as  practiced 
and  taught  by  their  respective  exponents.  The  emphasis  on  one 
feature  or  another  will  vary  with  the  conditions  to  be  met,  and 
with  individual  judgment,  predilection  or  bias. 

In  this  effort  to  adapt  gymnastic  work  to  a  variety  of  condi- 
tions there  is  bound  to  be  some  confusion  of  ideas,  some  clashing 
of  conceptions  and  theories  regarding  selection  and  management 
of  material,  methods  of  teaching  and  procedure.  Not  infrequently 
more  interest  and  energy  is  given  to  discussion  and  controversy 
about  the  theoretical  aspects  of  these  questions,  than  to  their 
practical  application  in  daily  teaching  and  guidance  of  the  pupils. 
This  tends  to  lower  the  estimate  placed  on  teaching  ability  and 
skill,  to  relegate  the  actual  teaching  to  young  and  inexperienced 
teachers,  and  even  to  the  neglect,  or  at  least  curtailment,  of  the 
practical  preparation  of  teachers  in  the  science  and  art  of  teach- 
ing. To  resulting  inefficient  teaching  is  to  be  attributed,  in  a  large 
measure,  the  lack  of  interest  in  gymnastic  work  which  is  too 
often  apparent  among  older  children  and  adolescents,  as  well  as 
the  lack  of  appreciation  and  recognition  for  such  work  on  the 
part  of  school  authorities.  Such  an  attitude  in  turn  reacts  unfa- 
vorably on  the  teachers,  tends  to  dampen  their  enthusiasm  and 
compels  them  to  resort  to  various  devices  to  make  the  work 
attractive  in  a  superficial  way.  This  often  involves  a  loss  of  time 
for  honest,  effective  work,  or  else  so  thoroughly  disguises  the 
latter  that  there  is  little  chance  of  its  recognition.  All  such 
efforts,  when  carried  too  far,  indicate  a  lack  of  conviction  or 
strength  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  tend  to  place  gymnastics 
in  the  position  of  a  pill,  more  or  less  bitter,  that  has  to  be  taken 
as  a  corrective  to  the  unfavorable  influences  of  school  life  on 
posture. 

While  the  right  kind  of  gymnastic  work  undoubtedly  does 
serve  this  corrective  purpose  better  than  any  other  agency,  to 


4  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

limit  its  application  to  this  function  alone,  to  deny  its  claim  to  a 
wider  field  of  usefulness,  is  willfully  to  ignore  the  lessons  of  the 
past  and  the  evidences  of  a  more  general  effectiveness  so  obvious 
to  any  intelligent  observer.  Such  a  reactionary  attitude  toward 
the  work  is  unfortunate  and  unwarranted.  It  tends  to  bring  it 
into  disfavor  and  to  retard  its  development  as  a  positive  educa- 
tional factor,-  capable  of  contributing  an  important  part  to  the 
all-around  training  of  the  individual  and  deserving  a  recognized 
place  in  the  educational  curriculum.  That  it  serves  a  broader 
and  more  constructive  purpose  than  merely  a  corrective  one,  is 
admitted  by  an  increasing  number  of  educators,  and  is  shown 
by  the  greater  amount  of  time  and  credit  allotted  to  it  in  edu- 
cational institutions. 

To  justify  the  claims  of  gymnastics  for  recognition  as  an  inte- 
gral part  of  the  school  and  college  curriculum,  it  behooves  the 
gymnastic  teachers  to  make  the  work  appreciated  at  its  true  worth 
by  both  pupils  and  school  authorities.  They  must  infuse  into 
it  an  element  of  life  and  enthusiasm  that  will  make  it  interesting 
and  enjoyable  to  the  pupils;  enjoyable  not  as  fun  or  play  (except 
in  the  case  of  young  children),  but  through  the  sense  of  exhilara- 
tion and  satisfaction  of  doing  something  worth  while,  something 
which  is  immediately  and  permanently  beneficial,  which  is  beau- 
tiful, because  vigorous,  effective  and  well  done,  something  in 
which  a  number  of  individuals  work  together  in  unison,  each 
reacting  on  the  other  and  each  having  a  share  in  the  success  of 
the  work  as  a  whole.  Educators  must  be  convinced,  by  the 
results  obtained,  that  gymnastic  work  is  something  more  than 
corrective  exercises ;  that  its  true  function  is  to  serve  as  a  means 
of  subjective  motor  education,  in  which  posture  education  is 
included  and  emphasized ;  that  it  is  capable  of  being  used  inten- 
sively and  systematically,  by  procedure  and  methods  suited  to 
educational  institutions  and  harmonizing  with  other  educational 
material  and  methods  as  regards  grading,  progression,  examina- 
tions, interest,  incentive,  and  the  permanent  influence  on  the  indi- 
vidual's development  and  personality. 

The  element  of  defwiteness  in  gymnastics. 

If  the  object  of  gymnastics  is  to  be  more  than  merely  muscular 
exercise — either  for  the  purpose  of  stimulating  the  physiological 
functions,  or  of  producing  local  muscular  development ;  if  it  is 
to  be  more  than  a  form  of  amusement  or  a  pretty  show;  if  the 
work  is  to  make  good  its  claim  to  recognition  as  a  positive  edu- 
cational factor,  it  should  be  of  such  a  character  as  to  require  and 
train  power  of  voluntary  attention,  a  sharpened  kinesthetic  sense, 
the  habit  of  quick  and  accurate  response  to  motor  stimuli.  It 


INTRODUCTION  5 

should  offer  and  demand  correct  solution  of  definite  motor  prob- 
lems, involving  precision,  speed,  balance,  quick  and  sure  weight 
adjustment,  rhythm.  It  should  conduce  to  erect  bearing  by 
requiring  a  good  posture  in  all  exercises,  and  by  including  a  num- 
ber of  exercises  in  which  the  muscles  responsible  for  good  posture 
are  given  vigorous  and  sustained  work  under  varying  difficulties, 
all  with  a  view  to  increase  the  tone,  endurance  and  localized  con- 
trol of  these  muscles,  and  to  cultivate  a  good  posture  sense. 

To  accomplish  these  objects  "gymnastic  work  must  be  selected, 
defined  and  taught  in  a  way  to  focus  attention,  to  exercise  the 
discriminative  and  inhibitory  powers  and  to  elicit  vigorous,  clean- 
cut,  well-adjusted  motor  reactions.  To  be  capable  of  presenta- 
tion to,  and  execution  in  unison  by,  a  number  of  individuals,  and 
in  a  manner  to  bring  out  their  full  effects,  the  exercises  must  be 
relatively  simple,  or  at  least  capable  of  subdivision  into  simple 
elements,  each  of  which  may  be  presented  and  executed  as  a 
complete  movement.  These  elements  must  be  sharply  defined  in 
every  detail,  such  as  plane  or  direction,  kind,  extent  and  speed 
of  movement;  the  parts  of  the  body  involved;  the  exact  rela- 
tion of  these  parts  in  the  position  reached  by  the  movement ; 
relative  length  of  time  spent  in  the  movement  and  in  holding 
position — rhythm. 

"With  this  exactness  of  definition,  there  must  be  insistence  on 
promptness,  precision  and  unison  in  the  execution.  Whether  the 
exercises  are  done  singly  on  command,  or  repeated  rhythmically, 
each  movement  or  part  (if  compound  or  alternating)  must  be 
completed  and  the  position  marking  its  completion  held  an  appre- 
ciable length  of  time,  before  the  return,  or  the  next  part  is  begun. 
This  involves  checking  momentum  and  overcoming  inertia  at 
every  point,  introduces  the  element  of  balance  and  redistribution 
of  weight  more  frequently  or  more  prominently,  compels  more 
complete,  powerful  and  varied  muscular  action,  and  gives  the 
pupil  an  opportunity  to  note  and  understand  what  he  is  doing, 
as  well  as  the  teacher  a  chance  to  help  him,  if  necessary."* 

This  "definiteness"  of  gymnastic  movements  makes  them  in  a 
sense  artificial.  Only  rarely,  in  the  lives  of  most  of  us,  is  there 
call  for  elementary,  isolated  movements  of  this  kind.  But,  surely, 
concentration  of  attention  and  effort,  exactness,  completeness  and 
speed  of  muscular  contraction,  and  power  of  localizing  movement 
are  elements  which  enter  into  all  skilled  and  efficient  action  and 
are  therefore  applicable  to  the  ordinary  movements  of  daily  life. 

Moreover,  unless  artificially  "definite"  in  this  way,  gymnastic 
exercises,  like  ordinary  movements,  will  tend  to  be  done  in  lines 
of  least  resistance,  in  regions  of  the  body  where  the  movement 

*Gymnastic  Kinesiology,  Wm.  Skarstrom. 


6  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

is  easiest,  by  moderate  contraction  of  many  muscle  groups — and 
those  usually  the  strongest,  best  developed.  Exercises  in  which 
this  definiteness  is  lacking  are  apt  to  consist  chiefly  of  acquired 
reflex  coordinations,  and  do  not  compel  the  discriminating  and 
inhibitory  guidance  of  the  higher  motor  centers  involved  in  learn- 
ing new  combinations  of  muscular  group  actions.  They  there- 
fore give  very  little  opportunity  for  the  refinement  of  motor 
control,  for  the  opening  up  of  new  connections  of  motor  associa- 
tions, for  increasing  the  power  of  muscular  localization.  Instead 
of  improving  they  rather  tend  to  confirm  undesirable  habits 
of  movement  and  posture.  Then,  too,  "indefinite"  exercises 
are  difficult  to  standardize  in  a  way  to  enable  the  pupil  to  judge 
the  result  of  his  effort,  or  the  teacher  to  express  his  criticism  and 
to  offer  suggestion  or  assistance  in  an  effectual  manner.  The 
tendency  to  distribute  movement  over  wide  areas,  and  so  to  save 
the  complete  and  powerful  contraction  of  circumscribed  muscular 
groups:  is  unchecked.  This  tendency  to  save  effort  locally  leads 
to  habits  of  listless,  cumbersome  or  slovenly  movement  (or 
at  least  makes  improvement  of  such  habits  a  difficult  matter), 
and  precludes  proper  development  and  localized  control  of  the 
muscles.*  The  curtailment  of  the  range  of  motion  in  the  joints, 
or  at  least  of  certain  kinds  of  motion,  which  is  sure  to  occur 
sooner  or  later  as  age  advances,  is  favored  by  this  tendency 
to  distribute  movement.  Gymnastic  exercises  of  the  "definite," 
localized  type  combat  this  tendency.  By  demanding  strong  con- 
traction of  all  parts  of  the  muscles  and  the  full  range  of  motion 
in  the  joints,  they  are  conducive  to  completeness  of  muscular 
development,  tend  to  increase  the  power  of  localizing  movement 
as  well  as  muscular  contraction  and  to  retard  the  gradual  limita- 
tion of  mobility. 

From  the  foregoing  it  must  not  be  inferred  that  all  gymnastic 
exercises  should  conform  in  all  respects  to  the  above  characteriza- 
tion of  definite  movements.  Definiteness  in  the  gymnastic 
sense  does  not  fix  a  limit  for  the  selection  and  combination  of 
movements,  although  it  undeniably  leads  to  some  restriction  in 
these  respects.  It  is  rather  a  quality  or  style  of  execution  which 
may  be  infused  into  any  kind  of  exercise  to  a  greater  or  less 
degree.  Nor  does  it  imply  exclusion  of  movements  of  a  general 
character,  which  by  virtue  of  greater  distribution  of  muscular 
action  are  particularly  well  suited  to  bring  out  the  organic  or 
physiological  effects  of  exercise.  On  the  contrary,  the  effort  to 
retain  the  quality  of  definiteness  as  far  as  possible  in  such  move- 
ments, especially  as  regards  completeness,  vigor,  speed,  etc.,  will 
enhance  their  value  and  increase  their  effectiveness  in  stimulat- 


*The  all-or-none  theory  of  muscular  contraction  is  of  interest  in  this  connection. 


INTRODUCTION  7 

ing  the  great  organs.  Moreover,  as  rhythmical  continuity  is  by 
no  means  incompatible  with  definiteness — if  the  exercises  are 
properly  taught — the  majority  of  the  exercises  in  a  lesson,  when 
done  serially  or  rhythmically,  may  be  made  to  contribute  in  a  con- 
siderable degree  to  this  general  effect. 

In  attempting  to  describe  a  certain  character  and  spirit  of 
gymnastic  work  and  to  include  it  all  in  the  rather  inadequate  term 
"definiteness,"  the  customary  setting  forth  and  discussion  of  the 
aims  and  objects  of  gymnastics  has  been  more  or  less  incidental. 
(These  will  be  restated  and  discussed  in  a  later  chapter,  prelimi- 
nary to  the  study  of  selection,  classification  and  arrangement  of 
exercises.)  The  division  of  the  gymnastic  lesson  into  groups  of 
exercises  representing,  respectively,  the  corrective,  educational 
and  hygienic  phases  of  gymnastics,  should  not  be  so  prominent 
in  the  teacher's  mind  that,  while  striving  for  one  kind  of  effects 
by  one  set  of  exercises,  he  allows  himself  to  lose  sight  of  the 
effects  aimed  at  by  the  others.  Rather  it  should  be  a  question 
of  emphasis.  The  mental  attitude  of  the  teacher  in  this  respect 
is  of  considerable  practical  importance.  It  may  make  or  mar 
the  success  of  the  lesson  and  of  the  whole  work.  But  the  thorough 
application  of  the  principle  of  definiteness  and  the  constant  striv- 
ing for  a  greater  degree  of  it  will  more  or  less  obscure  any 
lines  of  demarcation  and  will  tend  to  make  every  exercise  effective 
in  the  several  directions,  though  perhaps  more  in  some  than  in 
others.  At  all  events,  the  striving  for  definiteness,  as  an  ideal  in 
teaching,  cannot  fail  to  improve  the  quality  and  increase  the 
effectiveness  of  gymnastic  work. 

The  spirit  of  the  work  and  the  spirit  of  teaching. 

Careful  selection  and  clear  definition  of  the  exercises  do  not, 
in  themselves,  insure  that  definiteness  of  execution  by  the  class 
which  is  necessary  in  order  to  produce  the  desired  results.  The 
arrangement  and  combination  of  movements  in  making  up  the 
lessons,  rational  progression  from  day  to  day,  as  well  as  techni- 
cal skill  in  teaching  and  class  management  are  at  least  equally 
important  in  getting  the  work  done  properly.  Above  all,  the 
teacher's  personality — his  enthusiasm,  vitality,  strength  of  con- 
viction and  purpose,  as  expressed  through  the  technical  resources 
of  the  art  of  teaching,  or  through  his  influence  in  making  the 
pupils  apply  what  they  learn  in  class  to  daily  habits  of  movement 
and  posture — will  determine  the  degree  of  success  of  the  work, 
here  as  everywhere. 

To  elicit  the  response  and  secure  the  cooperation  necessary  for 
effective  work,  the  teacher  must  create  a  "spirit  of  the  work," 
expressing  itself  in  snappy  and  energetic  action  and  cheerful  alac- 


8  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

rity.  To  make  that  spirit  grow,  he  must  imbue  the  pupils  with 
his  own  enthusiasm  and  interest  in  the  work,  give  them  some 
idea  of  its  main  purpose,  character  and  plan.  Then  demand,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  the  best  efforts  of  which  they  are  capable; 
insist,  without  nagging,  that  they  do  full  justice  to  themselves  and 
the  work.  Assume,  in  general,  that  any  lapse,  or  failure  to  do 
good  work,  is  due  to  a  lack  of  understanding,  either  of  a  particu- 
lar exercise,  or  of  the  spirit  of  the  work.  Make  them  feel  that 
the  teacher  is  not  a  taskmaster,  but  is  working  with  them  and  for 
them. 

To  foster  this  spirit  of  cooperation,  every  teacher  should  give 
of  himself  freely,  spend  himself  almost  to  the  limit  of  his  powers, 
be  indefatigable  in  his  interest  in  each  individual.  As  his  techni- 
cal teaching  skill  increases  he  should  not  use  it  to  save  himself, 
but  rather  to  get  greater  results  from  his  efforts :  better  response, 
more  vigorous  and  accurate  execution  of  the  exercises,  deeper  and 
more  lasting  impressions  on  the  pupils.  Then  follow  up  the  class 
teaching  by  admonitions,  advice,  help  or  encouragement  outside 
of  the  classroom — in  the  examining  room,  in  the  office,  on  the 
gymnasium  floor  outside  of  class  hours,  in  the  dressing  room,  on 
the  campus,  yard  or  even  street.  Mingle  with  the  pupils  freely 
and  try  to  get  at  their  point  of  view.  Enter  into  their  interests. 
Satisfy  their  minds,  as  far  as  possible,  on  matters  of  administra- 
tion and  management  as  well  as  on  subject  matter,  whenever 
there  is  frank,  honest  questioning  or  misapprehension.  Do  not 
keep  aloof.  Treat  them  as  fair-minded  beings  and  take  them 
into  your  confidence  as  far  as  feasible.  Meet  them  on  terms  of 
human  equality  at  all  times ;  make  them  feel  that  the  classroom 
discipline  and  formal  relations  are  merely  devices  necessary  to 
facilitate  instruction  and  make  possible  cooperative  action  in 
which  each  has  an  equal  share.  Such  a  spirit  will  always  be 
appreciated  by  a  class  and  insure  the  hearty  support  and  willing 
cooperation  of  a  majority  of  its  members. 


II.     GENERAL  PRINCIPLES. 

1.     SOME  ESSENTIALS  FOR  SUCCESSFUL  TEACHING. 

The  elements  of  strength  and  success  of  a  teacher  lie  within 
himself  rather  than  in  external  conditions  and  circumstances. 
They  are  dependent  largely  on  inherent  qualities  which  are  not  to 
be  acquired-by  imitation  of  someone  else,  or  by  trying  to  live  up  to 
certain  rules  or  formulas.  Style,  method,  system,  while  of  some 
importance,  are  not  essential.  Good  results  may  be  obtained  in 
various  ways,  if  fundamental  principles  are  adhered  to.  While 
some  successful  teaching  is  achieved  by  untrained  teachers  who 
instinctively  or  by  long  experience  have  found  and  followed 
main  principles,  or  who  make  up  for  lack  of  technical  skill  by 
enthusiasm,  devotion,  and  energy,  it  must  be  admitted  that  a  great 
deal  of  mediocre  work  is  done  which  might  be  vastly  improved  if 
the  teachers  were  better  trained,  not  only  in  the  sciences  on  which 
the  work  itself  is  based,  but  in  the  art  of  teaching  it.  Here,  as 
everywhere  else,  there  is  the  same  difference  between  skilled  and 
unskilled  work,  between  crude  if  ever  so  honest  efforts  and  finished 
workmanship.  Even  the  born  teacher,  the  natural  genius,  may 
profit  and  the  quality  of  his  work  be  improved  by  a  study  of 
principles  and  technique,  with  a  view  to  making  him  a  finished 
artist;  while  those  who  are  more  modestly  equipped  by  nature 
may  gain  proficiency  and  facility  by  the  same  process. 

Learning  by  practice  and  experience,  while  perhaps  the  most 
effective  way,  is  not  always  sufficient.  It  is  costly,  severe,  and 
often  slow  in  its  results.  Many  mistakes  and  trials  may  be  avoided 
by  understanding  from  the  outset  certain  general  principles  which 
underlie  all  teaching  and  certain  details  of  method  and  procedure 
peculiar  to  our  own  work.  Proficiency  is  never  attained  without 
experience,  but  theoretical  considerations  and  careful,  intelligent 
observation  may  enable  us  to  derive  a  larger  measure  of  profit 
from  our  own  experience,  and  to  increase  it  considerably  by  turn- 
ing to  profitable  account  the  experience  of  others. 

Three  things,  then,  are  indispensable  for  complete  success: 

L Natura^L aptitude  and  a  strong  personality.  2.  A  study  of 

principles  and  methods  with  observation  of  their  practical  applica- 
tion. 3.  Actual  practice  and  experience  in  teaching.  Any  one 
or  two  without  the  other (s)  will  leave  something  to  be  desired; 
too  great  reliance  on  any  one  with  neglect  of  the  others  will 
militate  against  the  fullest  measure  of  success. 


10  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Personality  of  the  teacher.  The  first  of  these  essentials  in- 
cludes the  character,  the  living  power,  keen  insight,  resourceful- 
ness, zeal,  faithfulness,  energy,  enthusiasm,  willingness  to  give  of 
himself  without  stint — in  short,  all  those  qualities,  ideals,  and  hab- 
its of  the  teacher  which  taken  together  make  up  his  personality. 
These  cannot  be  communicated  or  subjected  to  rules  and  defini- 
tions, being  infinitely  varied  and  subtle.  The  qualities  which  make 
one  teacher  successful  may  not  be  the  same  as  those  which  make 
another  equally  strong  and  successful. 

Perhaps  in  no  other  calling  does  personality  play  such  an 
important  role  as  in  that  of  teaching.  In  most  occupations  the 
efficiency  of  the  worker  depends  mainly  on  his  special  physical 
and  mental  qualifications,  the  dealings  between  people  which  are 
involved  being  related  to  material  things.  But  with  the  teacher,  as 
with  the  minister  and  physician,  the  working  material  itself  is  the 
human  mind,  and  here  the  influence  of  personality  finds  its  greatest 
scope.  This  is  especially  true  in  gymnastics  because  of  the  intimate 
relation  and  close  association  between  teacher  and  pupils.  Here, 
even  more  than  anywhere,  it  is  as  much  a  question  of  what  a  man 
is,  as  what  he  does.  Among  the  personal  attributes  which  make 
for  the  success  of  a  teacher  are :  Patience,  cheerfulness,  good 
temper ;  keen  sense  of  humor,  ready  wit,  a  level  head ;  sympathy, 
sense  of  justice,  self-control,  leadership ;  vitality  and  a  fairly  good 
physique;  quick  eye  and  ear  and  a  good  voice.  Many  of  these,  if 
existing  in  an  undeveloped  state,  may  be  cultivated  and  made 
stronger  by  resolute  desire  and  effort  of  will,  and  by  creating  as  far 
as  possible  an  environment  favorable  for  their  growth  from 
within.  Some  of  them  may  also  be  developed  by  formal  training. 

Knowledge  of  principles  and  methods.  While  the  personality 
of  the  teacher — the  sum  total  of  his  natural  endowment,  his  educa- 
tion and  general  experience — is  perhaps  the  most  important  single 
item  on  which  successful  work  depends,  his  technical  training  and 
teaching  skill  constitute  an  almost  equally  essential  part  of  his 
equipment.  Such  technical  training  should  include  a  study  of  the 
main  anatomical,  physiological,  and  psychological  facts  on  which 
the  selection,  definition,  arrangement  and  progression  of  the 
work  are  based ;  a  working  knowledge  of  the  general  principles  of 
all  teaching,  sufficient  to  an  understanding  of  the  little  peculiari- 
ties of  human  nature  that  are  constantly  met  and  have  to  be 
reckoned  with,  serving  to  warn  him  against  and  enable  him  to 
avoid  many  pedagogical  pitfalls  and  difficulties — faults  of  com- 
mission or  omission  which  experience  has  shown  to  be  conducive 
to  ill  success.  Along  with  this  general  theoretical  training  should 
go  a' study  and  practice  of  the  subject-matter  to  be  taught,  with  a 
view  to  attaining  at  least  moderate  ability  and  skill  as  a  performer, 


ESSENTIALS  FOR  SUCCESSFUL  TEACHING  11 

and  insuring  an  ample,  varied,  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the 
material.  Familiarity  with  the  subject-matter  should  be  much 
wider  than  the  exigencies  of  any  particular  class-teaching  at 
any  given  time  might  require,  so  as  to  have  a  reserve  for  emer- 
gencies, to  allow  for  leeway  and  loss  in  transmission,  and  in  order 
to  give  the  teacher  a  sense  of  security  and  confidence.  It  will 
enable  him  to  meet  unexpected  contingencies,  such  as  stating 
reasons  for  a  given  procedure,  or  the  preference  for  one  rather 
than  another.  Finally,  the  earnest  and  most  painstaking  efforts 
of  every  prospective  or  actual  teacher  should  be  given  to  a  con- 
sideration of  the  devices  by  which  instruction  in  this  particular 
work  is  made  effective,  the  methods  used  for  accomplishing  the 
results  that  the  work  stands  for:  the  use  of  language,  voice, 
demonstration,  etc. ;  in  short,  the  technique  of  teaching  gymnas- 
tics. 

That  any  special  technical  training  is  required,  or,  indeed,  that 
there  is  any  such  thing  as  a  special  technique  in  teaching  gymnas- 
tics, is  hardly  realized  by  the  public  or  even  by  teachers  of  other 
subjects.  This  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  considering  that  it  is 
not  so  long  since  the  chief  qualification  of  a  teacher  was  considered 
to  be  skill  or  reputation  as  a  performer.  Until  recently  very 
little  emphasis  has  been  given  to  the  technique  of  teaching,  even 
in  normal  courses.  And  this  in  spite  of  the  fact,  attested  by 
teachers  who  have  had  other  experience,  that  gymnastics  is  one 
of  the  most  difficult  subjects  to  teach,  requiring  as  it  does  absolute 
attention,  vigorous  effort,  and  intelligent  cooperation  of  all  the 
pupils  at  the  same  time. 

Although  some  crude  teaching  still  passes  muster — either  be- 
cause the  public  has  not  yet  learned  to  judge  the  work  critically, 
or  because  the  supply  of  well-trained  teachers  has  not  yet  caught 
up  with  the  demand,  or  because,  even  when  poorly  taught,  the  work 
may  still  yield  some  obvious,  beneficial  results — nevertheless  the 
demand  for  skilled  teachers  is  growing  and  the  standards  of 
professional  competence  are  rapidly  advancing.  In  the  normal 
schools  more  and  more  attention  is  given  to  courses  on  the 
principles  and  technique  of  teaching  and  greater  facilities  are 
offered  for  practice-teaching.  To  qualify  as  teachers  or  super- 
visors in  public  schools  candidates  are  subjected  to  practical 
tests  in  teaching  and  criticism  as  a  part  of  their  examination. 
Other  things  being  equal,  the  technically  best  equipped  teachers 
gjavitate  toward  the  most  desirable  positions  and  so  compel  those 
less  thoroughly  trained  to  seek  opportunities  for  study  and  im- 
provement, as  witness  the  large  and  constantly  increasing  attend- 
ance at  summer  schools  and  special  courses.  All  these  factors 
are  making  for  greater  efficiency  in  teaching,  for  greater  effective- 


12  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

ness  of  the  work  with  correspondingly  increased  appreciation 
and  recognition. 

In  attempting  to  analyze  the  elements  or  factors  which  go  toward 
making  gymnastic  teaching  effective  or  the  reverse,  and  which 
may  be  properly  included  in  a  study  of  the  technique  of  teaching, 
we  are  at  once  confronted  with  the  difficulty  offered  by  the 
diversity  of  conditions  under  which  the  work  is  taught,  the  vary- 
ing emphasis  on  the  objects  aimed  at,  and  the  consequent  variations 
in  the  style  or  type  of  work  called  for.  Rules  of  technique  and 
method  might  lead  to  a  stereotyped,  lifeless  style  of  teaching,  a 
feeling  that  only  one  way  is  right  and  all  others  wrong.  To  discuss 
in  a  comprehensive  and  detailed  manner  all  possible  variations 
would  be  too  great  and  difficult  an  undertaking.  Not  until  we 
can  foresee  and  provide  for  all  possible  conditions  and  discuss 
methods  in  the  light  of  a  wide  experience  of  each  of  these  condi- 
tions; not  until  we  possess  a  complete  knowledge  of  psychological 
and  physiological  laws,  can  final,  adequate  rules  be  formulated. 
Such  a  time  will  probably  never  come,  nor  would  it  be  desirable,  as 
that  would  imply  limitation  to  personal  initiative  and  growth.  It 
will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to  limit  the  discussion  to  certain  topics 
or  phases  of  the  subject,  each  embodying  a  few  principles  and 
technical  features  which  are  applicable  in  greater  or  less  degree  to 
all  kinds  of  work.  Among  such  topics  are  the  following:  Control 
and  class  management;  formations  and  the  placing  of  the  class 
on  the  floor ;  presentation  and  demonstration  of  exercises ;  admo- 
nitions and  corrections ;  commands ;  the  use  of  the  active  and 
relaxed  position ;  combination  and  arrangement  of  exercises ;  pro- 
gression. In  connection  with  some  of  these  a  few  variations  in 
method  or  procedure  will  be  considered  and  their  respective 
advantages  or  disadvantages  pointed  out. 


2.     CONTROL  AND  CLASS  MANAGEMENT. 

Some  means  by  which  control  may  be  maintained.  Whatever 
may  be  the  style  of  work  taught,  or  the  conditions  under  which 
the  work  is  carried  on,  or  its  aims  and  objects,  the  prime  requisite 
for  successful  teaching  is  that  the  teacher  at  all  times  have  the  class 
well  in  hand,  be  the  undisputed  leader  and  the  master  of  every 
situation.  Class  control  and  management  are  at  once  the  test 
and  the  result  of  the  teacher's  personality,  his  understanding  of 
human  nature,  his  ability  to  adjust  himself  to  conditions  as  he 
finds  them  (or  better  yet,  his  ability  to  make  conditions  suit  him), 
and  his  correct  application  of  the  principles  underlying  the  work 
and  the  technique  of  its  teaching.  Control  may  sometimes  be 
attained  only  after  a  struggle  (of  wits)  in  which  the  new  teacher 


CONTROL  AND  CLASS  MANAGEMENT  13 

is  compelled  by  the  class  to  prove  his  right  to  leadership.  But 
even  the  best  behaved  class  will,  at  the  outset  and  from  time  to 
time,  often  in  subtle  and  apparently  innocent  ways,  put  the 
teacher  to  the  test,  and  if  the  latter  fails  to  measure  up  to  the 
proper  standard,  if  he  is  found  wanting  in  those  qualities  which 
may  be  expressed  by  the  term  power  of  command,  the  class  will 
gradually,  but  inevitably,  drift  away  from  habits  of  order,  disci- 
pline and  good  work  to  slackness,  disorder,  and  mischief.  Or  the 
interest  in  the  work  may  fail  either  to  materialize  at  all,  or,  if 
existing  at  first,  to  be  sustained. 

How  to  secure  and  maintain  control  is  a  question  the  full 
answer  to  which  cannot  be  given,  at  least  briefly,  as  it  involves 
everything:  personality  of  the  teacher;  interest  of  the  class  in 
the  work,  aroused  and  sustained  by  proper  adaptation,  progres- 
sion and  presentation  of  the  work  to  the  class ;  the  degree  to  which 
the  teacher  is  able  to  appeal  to  the  various  motives  and  incentives 
of  the  class  or  individual  members  of  it ;  the  teacher's  will  power 
and  vitality  generally,  and  at  any  given  lesson ;  his  ability  to  "get 
in  touch"  with  the  class,  to  establish  and  maintain  the  right 
personal  relations;  his  attention  to  all  the  technical  details  of  teach- 
ing. 

Incentives.  Some  teachers  control  largely  by  "exercising  their 
authority,"  by  virtue  of  the  awe  or  fear  they  inspire,  by  constantly 
holding  the  whip  of  compulsion  over  their  pupils.  This  form  of 
appeal  is  the  lowest  and  should  never  be  resorted  to,  except  once 
in  a  while  in  the  case  of  refractory  individuals  after  all  other  means 
have  failed.  Other  teachers  control  their  classes  through  the 
respect  and  affection  they  are  able  to  inspire,  by  imbuing  their 
pupils  with  a  desire  to  do  their  best  in  order  to  please  the  teacher 
and  gain  his  approbation ;  others  again  because  they  are  able  to 
arouse  the  sense  of  duty  in  their  pupils,  inducing  them  to  try  10 
do  the  work  well  because  it  is  worth  doing,  or  simply  because  it 
is  a  part  of  their  obligation  to  the  institution ;  or  by  appealing  to 
intelligent  self-interest,  to  a  commendable  desire  to  derive  the 
greatest  possible  benefit  from  the  work;  still  others  chiefly  by 
communicating  to  their  pupils  their  own  enthusiasm  and  interest 
in  the  work.  All  these  avenues  of  appeal,  except  the  first,  are 
useful  and  legitimate  means  of  maintaining  control,  and  the  most 
successful  teachers  are  those  who  know  how  to  play  upon  these 
different  motives  and  incentives  of  the  class  most  skillfully,  in 
the  right  proportion  and  at  the  proper  time. 

Will  power.  One  of  the  essentials  in  getting  and  keeping  con- 
trol of  a  class  is  a  strong,  well-trained  will  and  a  positive,  deter- 
mined mental  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Even  when  the 
conditions  under  which  he  is  working  are  in  the  main  favorable, 
he  usually  has  to  overcome  the  natural  inertia,  the  disinclination 


14  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

to  vigorous  mental  and  bodily  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  class 
(and  often  of  himself).  This  is  particularly  apt  to  be  the  case  in 
the  beginning  of  the  lesson,  at  the  first  "plunge"  into  the  work, 
before  the  class  has  become  "warmed  up"  to  it.  But  it  is  also 
true  to  an  almost  equal  extent  throughout  the  lesson.  To  make 
every  member  of  the  class  execute  each  movement  in  the  best 
possible  manner,  in  a  way  to  accomplish  the  purpose  for  which  it 
is  given,  in  perfect  unison,  with  the  utmost  effort  and  painstaking 
care,  whether  at  the  time  agreeable  or  not,  requires  a  combination 
and  interplay  of  will  power  between  the  teacher  and  the  class 
which  taxes  the  strength  and  tests  the  mettle  of  both.  Such  com- 
bined exercise  of  the  wills  of  the  leader  and  the  group,  the  leader 
furnishing  the  initiative,  the  impetus  and  the  stimulation,  is  the 
essential  feature  of  all  cooperative  action.  It  does  not  mean 
slavish  obedience,  the  subjection  of  the  pupil's  will  to  that  of  the 
teacher,  but  rather  the  guidance  of  the  former  by  the  latter  in 
the  accomplishment  of  some  definite  object.  The  work,  the  duty, 
or  the  cause  is  the  real  driving  power  of  both  the  leader  and  the 
group.  In  this  sense  obedience — willing  cooperation  on  the  part 
of  the  pupil — is  really  induced  exercise  of  the  pupil's  will  and  may 
justly  be  considered  effective  in  training  of  the  will.  At  any  rate, 
cooperative  action  of  this  sort,  produced  in  the 'first  place  by  the 
exercise  of  the  teacher's  will,  and  comprising  as  it  does  both 
positive  effort  and  inhibition  of  undesirable  action,  cannot  fail  to 
inculcate  habits  of  obedience  to  law  and  constituted  authority,  to 
the  self-restrictions  imposed  by  an  intelligent  and  worthy  plan 
of  life,  and  to  the  suggestions  or  guidance  of  a  chosen  leader. 
All  these  forms  of  obedience  are  necessary  in  any  true  democracy, 
and  must  be  rendered  by  every  good  citizen.  "The  habit  of 
obedience  to  law,  of.  bringing  our  actions  into  harmony  with  it, 
is  one  of  the  first  conditions  of  an  orderly  and  well-disciplined 

life Obedience  is  a  habit  and  must  be  learned  like  any 

other  habit,  by  practice."  (J.  G.  Fitch.) 

The  degree  of  obedience  or  willing  cooperation  on  the  part 
of  the  class  will  then  be  the  measure,  for  one  thing,  of  the  teacher's 
will  power.  This  in  turn  is  expressed  through  his  self-control,  his 
strength  of  purpose,  and  his  ability  to  liberate  energy.  It  will 
vary  with  his  physical  condition,  with  his  mental  state,  his  ideals, 
and  temperament.  Undue  fatigue,  emotional  disturbance,  even 
atmospheric  conditions  may  blunt  the  keen  edge  of  his  will  power 
and  be  reflected  by  slackness  or  poor  quality  of  work  on  the  part 
of  the  class.  Will  power  in  the  teacher  will  show  itself  among 
other  things  by  his  self-possession,  by  a  firm,  decided,  animated 
attitude,  manner,  tone  of  voice;  the  lack  of  it  by  a  nervous, 
irritated,  or  uncertain  manner,  hesitation  in  voice  and  bearing, 
aimless  movements,  superfluous  speech,  nervous  mannerisms,  etc. 


CONTROL  AND  CLASS  MANAGEMENT  15 

A  quiet  but  determined  manner,  an  air  of  expecting  to  be 
listened  to  and  obeyed  as  a  matter  of  course,  being  an  expression 
of  the  real  feeling  that  such  is  the  case,  will  go  a  great  way  toward 
securing  that  willing  obedience  which  is  the  first  requisite  to 
cooperation.  On  the  other  hand,  "obedience  cannot  be  gained 
by  demanding  it  (in  words  or  by  gestures  which  are  supposed 
to  be  manifestations  of  will  power),  or  by  explaining  its  useful- 
ness, or  by  entreaty,  or  by  threat — all  these  are  signs  of  weakness 
and  lack  of  will  power."  (Fitch.) 

Interest:  Getting  and  keeping  in  touch  with  the  class.  Class 
control  is  very  much  dependent  on  the  interest  of  the  pupils  in  the 
work.  When  this  is  lacking,  control  can  only  be  maintained 
through  "the  exercise  of  authority"  in  an  undesirable  way.  In- 
terest in  turn  depends  on  the  proper  adaptation,  character,  plan- 
ning, progression,  and  presentation  of  the  work.  It  also  indicates 
the  teacher's  ability  to  get  in  touch  with  the  class,  to  establish 
and  maintain  the  right  mental  relations,  to  infuse  into  the  class 
his  own  interest  in  the  work.  While  the  teacher's  personality 
is  a  large  factor  in  this  as  in  everything,  a  judicious  "introduction" 
of  the  work  to  the  class  is  of  great  help.  A  certain  amount  of 
explanation  by  the  teacher  of  the  nature,  plan,  and  purpose  of  the 
work  is  always  possible  and  should  be  given  at  the  first  meeting 
of  the  class.  The  form  and  comprehensiveness  of  such  a  pre- 
liminary statement  will  vary  with  the  age  of  the  pupils,  their 
probable  attitude  toward  the  work,  and  the  conditions  under  which 
it  is  carried  on.  At  such  a  time,  after  having  stated  briefly  and 
clearly  the  objects  of  the  work  as  he  conceives  them  and  what 
kind  of  work  in  his  judgment  will  best  attain  these  objects,  the 
teacher  may  in  a  straightforward,  simple  way  ask  the  pupils  to 
give  him  their  cheerful  cooperation  in  his  efforts  to  organize  the 
class  and  to  drill  it  in  those  details  which  are  necessary  to  enable 
him  to  handle  it  like  a  well-adjusted  machine.  He  may  appeal 
to  the  "group  spirit"  by  pointing  out  the  necessity  of  each  member 
doing  his  best  in  order  to  insure  unison,  good  quality,  and  finish 
to  the  work  of  the  class  as  a  whole.  He  may  suggest  the  advan- 
tage of  going  slowly  in  the  beginning  so  as  to  master  fundamental 
details  before  attempting  more  rapid  and  complex  work,  with  a 
view  to  progressing  farther  and  faster  in  the  long  run.  In  conclu- 
sion, he  may  show  the  importance  of  starting  and  finishing  all 
exercises  in  a  good  fundamental  position.  Then  begin  the  lesson  by 
practicing  this  is  an  exercise  in  response  to  the  command  "Atten- 
tion!" and  in  a  way  to  make  the  contrast  between  this  fundamen- 
tal and  the  relaxed  position  as  striking  as  possible. 

When  physical  examinations  are  made  before  the  work  begins, 
the  teacher  has  a  good  opportunity  to  arouse  the  individual 
pupil's  interest  by  pointing  out  his  needs  for  improvement  and  by 


16  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

giving  him  a  general  idea  of  the  kind  of  work  which  will  best 
accomplish  this.  Here  he  can  show  him  how  to  stand  and  walk 
erect  and  urge  him  to  practice  this  as  a  special  exercise  until  he  can 
do  it  with  ease  and  almost  unconsciously.  He  can  also  emphasize 
the  importance  of  maintaining  this  forced  erect  carriage  through- 
out all  individual  and  class  exercises,  and  urge  the  advantage  of 
doing  each  exercise  with  the  utmost  accuracy  and  power. 

The  extent  to  which  the  teacher  can  in  this  way  prepare  the 
minds  of  the  pupils  and  enlist  their  cooperation  beforehand  will 
determine  the  character  of  the  work  and  the  method  of  teaching, 
at  least  in  the  beginning.  If  the  age  and  intelligence  of  the  class 
and  its  serious  interest  in  the  work  warrant  it,  he  may,  for 
example,  find  it  feasible  and  wise  to  drill  on  fundamental  details 
to  demand  quick  response  to  commands  and  a  fair  degree  of 
precision  and  unison  in  the  execution  of  a  few  simple  movements 
at  the  first  lesson,  even  if  the  continuity  and  quantity  of  the 
muscular  work  have  to  be  sacrificed  for  the  time  being.  If,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  class  is  of  an  age  or  mental  attitude  in  which 
that  kind  of  a  lesson  would  fail  to  be  appreciated  and  arouse 
interest,  because  its  purpose  could  not  be  readily  understood,  it 
would  be  wiser  to  spend  less  time  on  details,  to  use  the  more 
indefinite  types  of  exercise  and  at  once  to  strive  for  continuity, 
swing  and  go.  Such  work  would  be  more  likely  to  catch  and 
hold  the  attention  of  the  pupils,  to  call  forth  their  most  vigorous, 
even  if  crude  efforts,  and  to  produce  the  immediate  and  obvious 
organic  effects  which  they  are  capable  of  appreciating.  In 
most  cases  it  will  probably  be  best  to  mix  the  two  kinds  of  work 
in  varying  proportions.  If  this  is  done  judiciously,  beginning 
and  ending  the  lesson  with  lively  exercises,  the  teacher  will  at 
once  get  in  touch  with  the  class,  there  will  be  no  slackening  of 
interest  and  therefore  no  danger  of  loss  of  control. 


3.     DISCIPLINE  AND  ATTENTION. 

Discipline.  Among  the  most  fundamental  and  obvious  ele- 
ments or  expressions  of  control  are  orderly  behavior,  decorum, 
obedience  and  attention  to  duty — collectively  included  in  the  term 
discipline.  This  term  also  implies  inhibition  and  repression,  as 
well  as  measures  producing  these.  Poor  discipline  in  teaching 
means  imperfect  control  and  slovenly,  ineffective  work. 

With  favorable  conditions,  such  as  good  morale  and  traditions 
of  the  institution,  a  recognized  standing  and  good  backing  of 
the  work,  and  the  right  relations  between  teacher  and  class,  dis- 
cipline is  rarely  a  problem.  Good  discipline  is  then  a  matter  of 
course,  the  natural,  normal  condition  of  things.  It  is  insured 


DISCIPLINE  AND  ATTENTION  17 

and  maintained  by  giving  the  class  abundant  work  requiring  the 
constant  exercise  of  the  mental  and  bodily  powers  of  the  pupils, 
and  of  such  a  character  as  to  arouse  and  keep  their  interest. 
Then  it  needs  no  mention  or  sign  of  conscious  management  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher.  And  yet,  the  maintenance  of  such  a 
desirable  state  of  things  requires  his  thoughtful  consideration 
and  watchfulness,  his  constant  self-control,  ready  resourcefulness 
and  good  judgment.  There  will  always  arise  occasions,  even  in 
well-behaved  classes,  when  something  occurs  which,  if  not  prop- 
erly met,  might  lead  to  a  breach  of  discipline  and  at  least  tempo- 
rary loss  of  control.  It  may  be  some  little  slackness  in  the  begin- 
ning of  a  lesson,  insufficient  alacrity,  some  thoughtlessness  or  ex- 
cessive high  spirits  on  the  part  of  one  or  a  few  pupils,  of  no  great 
harm  or  consequence  in  itself,  but  apt  to  lead  to  other  things  or 
to  be  "catching."  All  such  little  deviations  from  good  order  and 
discipline,  especially  such  as  are  out  of  keeping  with  the  spirit 
of  the  work,  must  not  be  allowed  to  pass  without  notice,  lest 
they  grow  and  multiply.  A  word,  or  even  a  look,  not  neces- 
sarily severe  but  sufficient  to  indicate  that  the  incident  has  been 
observed  and  disapproved,  may  be  sufficient.  If  any  considerable 
number  have  been  guilty,  a  few  words  of  censure  to  the  class 
as  a  whole,  spoken  calmly  and  without  any  show  of  personal 
annoyance  or  resentment,  may  be  advisable,  especially  if  the 
pupils  are  very  young.  If  really  flagrant  breaches  of  discipline 
should  occur,  more  vigorous  measures  may  be  necessary,  such  as 
sharp  reproof  of  individuals  before  the  class,  the  imposition  of 
a  suitable  penalty  in  keeping  with  the  customs  of  the  institution, 
loss  of  privileges  and  even  exclusion  from  the  class  for  the  time 
being.  Perhaps  the  best  and  most  effective  way  in  such  cases 
is  to  ask  the  offending  pupil  to  see  the  teacher  after  class.  Then 
the  matter  can  be  talked  over  quietly,  the  reasons  for  and  the 
circumstances  leading  up  to  the  offense  inquired  into,  and  the 
right  kind  of  appeal  or  pressure  be  brought  to  bear.  In  this 
way  a  deeper  and  more  lasting  impression  is  made  and  repetitions 
are  less  likely  to  occur.  The  moral  effect  on  the  rest  of  the  class 
is  also  considerable. 

If  a  whole  class  show  a  spirit  of  mischief  or  antagonism  to  a 
new  teacher,  he  can  in  most  cases  conquer  it  by  a  fearless  and 
apparently  unconcerned  manner  on  noting  the  first  signs;  then, 
perhaps,  by  reprimanding  one  or  two  in  quiet  tone,  but  with  a 
look  and  manner  conveying  the  impression  of  unlimited  reserve 
power,  of  perfect  understanding  of  the  situation  and  ability  to 
deal  with  it.  In  the  meanwhile  he  may  decide  in  his  own  mind 
what  to  do  in  case  of  further  trouble ;  then,  if  it  seems  unavoid- 
able, make  the  issue  in  a  few  well  chosen  words,  and  "land  hard" 
on  the  first  offenders,  using  whatever  legitimate  means  he  has 


18  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

at  his  command.  If  possible,  meet  the  issue  smilingly,  but  in 
any  case  with  firmness  and  determination.  Above  all,  give  no 
sign  of  being  disconcerted  or  irritated,  as  that  is  exactly  what  a 
mischievous  class  desires.  When  a  class  finds  that  a  teacher  is 
fearless  and  cool,  seems  to  know  his  business  and  to  understand 
the  mental  workings  of  the  group  and  of  every  individual,  it 
soon  settles  down  to  a  business-like  attitude.  When  two  or  more 
individuals  habitually  incite  each  other  to  mischief  or  inattention, 
separation  may  be  all  that  is  necessary. 

Under  all  circumstances,  it  is  essential  that  the  teacher  keep  his 
temper  and  administer  reproof  or  punishment  in  a  manner  free 
from  any  suggestion  of  personal  animosity.  While  a  show  of 
righteous  indignation  or  even  wrath  may  on  rare  occasions  be 
justifiable,  and  very  effective,  it  is  safest  to  avoid  any  explosive 
reaction,  any  violent  collision  with  individuals  or  class.  It  is 
always  desirable  to  control  by  gentle  means  as  far  as  possible  and 
to  keep  the  idea  of  compulsion  by  severe  measures  in  the  remote 
background.  Make  the  pupils  feel  that  you  take  for  granted 
obedience  and  good  behavior  on  their  part  and  treat  any  small 
lapse  with  surprise  and  disappointment.  Do  not  be  too  quick  to 
make  a  rule  or  a  threat,  especially  if  enforcement  or  fulfilment 
would  be  difficult.  But  if  for  any  reason  compelled  to  make  the 
issue  squarely,  then  stick  to  it  to  the  bitter  end  (providing  you 
are  in  the  right),  no  matter  what  trouble  or  discomfort  may 
grow  out  of  it — to  yourself  as  well  as  to  the  pupils. 

The  manner  of  showing  disapproval  is  of  great  importance. 
This  applies  to  the  execution  of  an  exercise  as  well  as  to  the 
general  behavior  of  the  class.  Reproof,  reproach  or  punishment 
of  any  kind  is  a  matter  requiring  much  pedagogical  tact  and  judg- 
ment. Whenever  possible  without  spoiling  the  result,  inject  a 
little  humor  into  the  situation.  This  is  often  more  effective  than 
sternness,  especially  in  minor  matters.  It  gives  the  class  the 
feeling  that  the  teacher  can  easily  handle  any  situation,  has  plenty 
of  reserve  power,  does  not  criticise  or  censure  from  a  spirit  of 
pedantry  or  fussiness  and  does  not  take  himself  too  seriously. 
But  be  sure  that  the  humor  is  of  a  kindly  nature  and  spontaneous. 
Avoid  sarcasm  of  a  biting,  and  especially  of  a  sneering  kind.  It 
is  sure  to  be  resented,  as  it  always  means  that  the  teacher  is  tak- 
ing advantage  of  his  position  in  an  unfair  way. 

Knowing  when  and  how  to  express  disapproval  or  mete  out 
punishment,  and  above  all,  not  overdoing  it,  is  one  of  the  chief 
factors  of  success  in  maintaining  discipline  and  at  the  same  time 
keeping  on  good  terms  with  the  class.  Another  is  to  furnish  an 
abundance  of  hard,  but  interesting  work.  No  general  rules  can 
be  laid  down,  except  that  of  being  just  and  impersonal.  Assuming 
as  far  as  possible  that  minor  infractions  are  unintentional  lapses, 


DISCIPLINE  AND  ATTENTION  19 

due  to  momentary  forgetfulness  or  inability  promptly  to  change 
from  a  state  of  playful  excitement  or  inertia  to  one  of  serious 
attention  and  alacrity,  rather  than  to  willful  desire  to  annoy  or  re- 
luctance to  work,  and  treating  them  as  such,  will  usually  be  the 
best  way.  But  guard  against  letting  the  class  think  that  even  little 
things  can  pass  unnoticed  or  will  be  accepted — that  the  teacher  is 
"easy."  "Nip  things  in  the  bud!"  Always  show  gentle  but  firm 
and  unmistakable  disapproval  of  the  least  breach  of  discipline, 
slackness,  mind  wandering  or  whatever  the  case  may  be,  and  so 
make  the  possibility  of  really  serious  trouble  increasingly  remote 
and  out  of  the  question. 

Attention.  If  discipline  may  be  said  to  represent  the  negative 
side  of  class  control,  the  ability  to  secure  and  maintain  attention 
constitutes  its  positive  or  active  phase.  Discipline  implies  inhibi- 
tion or  repression  of  impulses  and  actions  subversive  of  good 
order  and  the  right  conditions  for  work.  Attention — in  the  ordi- 
nary sense,  and  also  including  all  that  is  implied  in  such  terms  as 
alertness,  alacrity,  response,  readiness  and  willingness  to  think  and 
to  do — is  an  essential  feature  of  the  work  itself.  Lacking  this 
positive,  controlled,  fixed  and  willingly  given  attention,  the  work 
is  but  a  sorry  spectacle,  devoid  of  life  and  interest,  perfunctory,, 
listless  and  of  doubtful  value,  even  though  there  be  perfect 
decorum  and  a  kind  of  submissive,  passive  "pseudo"-attention. 
When  active  attention  has  been  established  and  every  individual 
is  ready  and  willing  to  work,  understands  what  to  do  and  how 
to  go  about  it,  there  will  be  no  need  for  repressive  measures,  no 
call  for  the  exercise  of  authority  to  maintain  discipline.  This  is 
but  the  application  of  the  common  principle  of  forestalling  and 
inhibiting  undesirable  action  by  inducing  right  action,  of  diverting 
aimless,  useless  or  mischievous  impulses  and  energy  into  useful 
channels,  into  purposeful  activity.  It  will  readily  be  seen  that 
not  only  control  but  the  success  of  the  work  from  all  points  of 
view  hinge  on  the  teacher's  ability  to  stimulate  and  hold  this 
active,  directed,  fixed  attention.  How  to  focus  the  mental  pro- 
cesses of  a  number  of  mind-wandering,  indifferent,  inert  and  per- 
haps even  antagonistic  individuals,  or  a  lot  of  excited,  rollicking, 
contending,  play-fighting,  wildly  shouting  young  savages,  as  the 
case  may  be,  upon  the  serious,  orderly,  formal  work  in  hand ; 
how  to  keep  these  various  minds  steadily  and  unswervingly 
applied  to  definite,  discriminating,  vigorous  efforts,  the  purpose 
of  which  may  be  only  vaguely  understood  and  the  incentive  for 
which  is  at  best  distant  and  more  or  less  abstract,  is  often  a  task 
of  considerable  magnitude  and  difficulty.  It  taxes  the  vitality,  the 
strength  of  will,  the  natural  and  trained  powers  of  leadership  of 
the  teacher  and  all  the  technical  resources  of  the  art  of  teaching.. 
Indeed,  this  is  the  very  essence  of  the  art  of  teaching. 


20  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

While  it  would  be  futile  to  attempt  to  enumerate  and  describe 
all  the  factors  which  enter  into  this  problem,  all  the  means  which 
may  be  legitimately  used  to  secure,  stimulate  and  hold  attention, 
or  the  mistakes  which  lead  to  a  loss  of  it,  a  few  suggestions  at 
this  time  may  be  appropriate  and  helpful  as  having  a  bearing  on 
class  control.  In  the  detailed  discussion  of  the  technique  of 
teaching,  later,  the  subject  of  attention  will  be  often  referred  to 
and  always  borne  in  mind. 

The  beginning  of  the  lesson  is  usually  the  most  difficult  and 
critical  time  in  all  respects.  Especially  is  this  true  when  the 
pupils  enter  the  gymnasium  in  an  informal  manner  and  are 
allowed  to  run  around  and  amuse  themselves  -in  any  way  they 
choose  for  a  varying  length  of  time  before  the  lesson.  When 
control  becomes  difficult  on  this  account,  it  may  be  feasible  and 
wise  to  curtail  their  free  use  of  the  place  to  some  extent,  as  in 
the  use  of  apparatus,  balls,  etc.  But  even  so,  it  will  hardly  be 
possible  or  wise  entirely  to  curb  youthful  spirits  by  negative  means 
— restriction,  repression,  interdiction.  It  would  be  better  not  to 
allow  them  on  the  floor  at  all  before  the  lesson,  but  to  keep  them 
in  the  dressing  room  or  hall  until  all  are  ready,  and  then  to  march 
them  in  in  good  order.  This  is  done  in  many  schools.  On  the 
other  hand,  when  a  fairly  long  time  is  allowed  between  periods, 
it  becomes  a  question  of  whether  it  is  not  better  to  let  them  romp 
and  play  on  the  gymnasium  floor  rather  than  to  try  to  keep  them 
quiet  and  orderly  in  a  crowded  and  often  poorly  ventilated  dress- 
ing room.  The  former  is  probably  preferable  and  in  many  places 
other  than  schools  may  be  the  only  feasible  way.  In  such  cases 
it  will  usually  take  a  little  time  and  several  steps  to  get  the  class 
lined  up  and  ready  for  work. 

It  would  be  unreasonable  to  expect  an  instantaneous  change 
from  the  varying  mental  states  of  hilarity,  excitement  or  inertia  to 
one  of  quiet  but  alert  attention.  Often  the  teacher's  voice  may 
not  be  adequate  to  arrest  and  change  the  condition  of  things.  A 
bell  or  a  whistle  may  be  necessary  as  a  preliminary  signal.  A 
class  may  be  trained  to  subside  into  quiet  and  even  silence  on  this 
signal,  and  then  to  form  promptly  on  the  command  "Fall  in !"  or 
"Line  up !"  Or  this  may  be  done  without  any  special  command. 
In  any  case,  it  will  be  worth  while  to  drill  a  class  in  prompt  re- 
sponse to  whatever  signal  is  given,  and  to  line  up  in  some  agreed- 
upon  manner  with  the  utmost  alacrity.  Try  to  stimulate  their 
pride  and  spirit  of  emulation  in  this  respect ;  make  each  individual 
feel  responsible  and  loth  to  be  the  last,  or  the  cause  of  delayed 
and  poor  alignment.  It  is  wise  to  allow  a  little  time  for  this  pre- 
liminary formation  before  calling  the  class  to  attention  by  the 
formal  command.  It  paves  the  way  for  and  insures  a  more  per- 
fect response  to  the  first  command  "Attention!"  But  make  con- 


DISCIPLINE  AND  ATTENTION  21 

stant  efforts  to  shorten  this  time.  With  young  pupils,  and  occa- 
sionally with  older,  actually  timing  this  manoeuver  may  prove  a 
good  stimulus.  Even  ordering  a  class,  when  the  first  attempt  has 
been  unsatisfactory,  to  break  ranks,  scatter  and  try  it  again,  may 
be  effective  in  the  beginning,  or  later  when  there  is  sign  of  slack- 
ness. But  this  expedient  might  not  be  safe  if  used  too  often, 
or  with  classes  difficult  to  handle. 

Having  in  an  informal  way  got  the  class  under  partial  control 
and  arranged  in  an  approximately  correct  formation  on  the  floor, 
try  to  get  silence  and  readiness  for  the  real  beginning  of  the 
lesson  by  standing  still  before  the  class,  running  the  eye  along  the 
lines  and  indicating  by  look,  bodily  attitude,  slight  gesture  or 
even  a  brief  admonition,  that  something  is  about  to  happen ;  then 
command  "Attention!"  in  the  most  effective  voice  and  manner 
possible.  This  does  not  mean  in  a  loud  voice,  necessarily.  It  may 
be  done  that  way,  or  more  quietly,  but  always  in  a  tone  and  with 
a  manner  indicating  force  of  will,  energy  and  reserve  power,  as 
well  as  expectancy  to  be  obeyed  instantly  and  absolutely.  At  the 
same  time  there  ought  not  to  be  too  strong  a  suggestion  of  master- 
fulness in  a  personal  way.  Rather  try  to  convey  the  idea  of 
something  more  than  that,  of  a  motive  power  which  is  compelling 
and  binding  on  teacher  and  pupils  alike,  namely  the  duty,  the  work 
which  both  are  to  accomplish.  This  applies  to  the  giving  of  all 
commands.  To  convey  this  idea  more  clearly  (without  saying 
anything  about  it)  and  at  the  same  time  to  help,  by  suggestion, 
to  get  a  satisfactory  response  to  the  command  "Attention!"  it 
is  well  for  the  teacher  himself  to  respond  to  his  own  command 
with  the  utmost  vigor,  by  assuming  the  fundamental  gymnastic 
position  suddenly,  and  retaining  it  rigidly  for  a  moment  before 
proceeding  further.  If  the  response  of  the  class  is  not  satis- 
factory, if  it  is  lacking  in  promptness  and  does  not  show  a  marked 
contrast  to  the  position  of  ease,  then  give  "In  place  rest!"  and 
repeat,  having  first  made  an  admonition,  if  necessary.  After  a 
moment's  immobility  and  perfect  silence,  proceed  briskly  with 
the  next  step  in  the  lesson — usually  the  alignment.  Or,  if  there  are 
any  announcements  or  special  statements  to  make,  do  so  at  this 
time.  But  first  give  "In  place  rest  I"  then  begin  to  speak  immedi- 
ately after  this  command  has  been  properly  responded  to.  This 
procedure  insures  their  attentiveness  while  relieving  them  from 
the  strain  of  holding  the  fundamental  position  for  a  considerable 
length  of  time.  On  the  other  hand,  it  avoids  an  inevitable  lapse 
from  the  fundamental  position,  due  to  fatigue  or  forgetfulness, 
which  is  very  undesirable  from  a  pedagogical  standpoint.  When'- 
ever  during  the  lesson  there  is  an  intermission  or  lengthy  explana- 
tion, the  class  should  be  formally  relieved  from  the  fundamental 


22  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

position  and  allowed  to  stand  at  ease,  though  not  relaxed  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  mean  slouching  or  poor  posture. 

Very  often  control  is  lost,  in  a  small  way  at  least,  by  failing 
to  check  the  tendency  of  most  pupils  to  try  to  adjust  their  places 
in  the  line  after  attention  has  been  called.  It  usually  represents 
good  intention,  perhaps  a  mistaken  idea  of  what  is  wanted,  an 
imperfect  understanding  of  the  significance  of  the  command 
"Attention!"  or  at  worst  a  belated  attempt  to  do  something  which 
should  have  been  done  before.  In  any  case,  it  is  obvious  that 
the  command  has  failed  to  produce  the  desired  effect,  and  such 
failure  should  not  be  accepted  or  countenanced.  The  acceptance 
of  every  such  failure,  no  matter  what  the  reason,  weakens 
the  teacher's  power  of  command  and  class  control,  as  well  as  the 
pupils'  habit  of  active,  concentrated  attention.  In  this  particu- 
lar case  it  also  tends  to  confusion  of  ideas.  Make  the  distinction 
between  the  commands  "Attention!"  and  "Right  dress!"  clear, 
and  insist  that  each  be  responded  to  in  the  right  way  and  at  the 
right  time. 

When  speaking  to  the  class,  either  for  the  purpose  of  instruc- 
tion, description  of  an  exercise,  comment  or  admonition  regard- 
ing its  execution,  or  on  any  other  matter,  it  is  important  that  the 
teacher  stand  in  a  place  and  at  a  distance  from  which  he  can  be 
heard  and  preferably  seen  by  all.  He  should  face  the  class  and 
keep  his  eye  on  all  parts  of  it.  A  platform  may  be  useful  for 
this  purpose  but  is  not  always  necessary  or  even  convenient.  Be 
sure  that  voice  and  enunciation  are  such  that  the  pupils  farthest 
away  are  reached.  Guard  against  the  not  uncommon,  usually 
unconscious,  mistake  of  addressing  those  standing  nearest. 

Do  not  begin  to  speak  until  all  are  quiet  and  attending.  If 
inadvertently  failing  to  wait,  or  if  a  few  pupils  become  inatten- 
tive, and  especially  if  any  one  speaks  or  otherwise  disturbs  the 
absolute  quiet,  stop  immediately  and  abruptly,  in  the  middle  of 
a  sentence  preferably.  Then  by  look,  gesture  or  quiet  verbal 
reminder,  gain  or  restore  complete  attention.  Do  not  resort  to 
vehement  demands  for  silence  and  attention  or  show  any  signs 
of  irritation.  If  reproof  seems  necessary,  administer  it  in  a  calm, 
self -controlled  manner,  then  resume  speaking  as  if  nothing  had 
happened.  Occasionally  it  may  be  necessary  to  command  "Atten- 
tion!" and  then  give  "In  place  rest!"  as  described  above.  If  the 
teacher  goes  on  speaking  and  accepts  inattention  and  even  con- 
versation from  a  part  of  the  class,  this  part  will  grow  larger  and 
larger,  and  soon  the  majority  will  feel  that  strict  attention  is  not 
expected.  This  is  one  of  the  most  common  ways  in  which  the 
teacher's  hold  on  the  class  is  weakened.  Moreover,  the  pupils 
are  encouraged  to  form  habits  of  discourtesy  and  disrespect. 


DISCIPLINE  AND  ATTENTION  23 

Interest  in  the  work  is  an  essential  factor  in  securing  and  hold- 
ing attention.  To  arouse  and  sustain  interest,  the  work  must 
be  adapted  to  the  needs  and  abilities  of  the  class.  It  must  meet 
in  the  first  place  those  needs  of  which  the  pupils  are  aware :  the 
needs  for  exercise,  for  bodily  action  which  will  produce  the 
immediate  organic  effects  and  the  exhilaration  or  sense  of  well- 
being  associated  with  it.  The  _  work  should  also  be  of  such 
a  character  that  it  tests  and  makes  full  use  of  the  various  abilities 
already  possessed  by  the  class,  as  regards  strength,  agility  and 
skill,  and  at  the  same  time  is  most  conducive  to  perceptible 
improvement  in  these  directions.  On  the  other  hancl,  it  must  be 
simple  enough  to  enable  the  average  pupil  to  do  it  reasonably 
well,  thus  giving  him  a  sense  of  satisfaction  and  encouragement. 
The  proper  selection,  grading  and  adaptation  of  the  work  must 
be  backed  up  with  good  presentation,  animated,  inspiring,  techni- 
cally correct  teaching  and  rational  progression.  The  class  must 
be  made  aware  of  progress  in  some  way.  It  is  well,  for  example, 
when  introducing  a  new  type  of  exercise,  or  a  new  combination, 
to  indicate  by  a  few  words  its  purpose,  its  relation  to  similar  exer- 
cises with  which  the  class  is  familiar — wherein  it  differs,  what 
constitutes  the  increased  difficulty,  or  its  particular  effectiveness, 
what  final  form  or  type  it  leads  up  to,  etc. 

Having  aroused  the  interest  and  gained  the  confidence  of  the 
pupils,  the  teacher  can  gradually  modify  their  mental  attitude 
toward  the  work,  lead  them  on  to  different  and  broader  points  of 
view,  indicate  needs  of  which  they  were  not  aware  at  first,  and 
arouse  interest  in  work  suited  to  those  needs.  This  enables  the 
teacher  to  appeal  to  motives  and  furnish  incentives  which  pre- 
viously would  not  have  been  available  or  effective.  Also  he  can 
make  the  pupils  appreciate  phases  of  the  work  which  require  a 
certain  amount  of  progress  and  training  to  be  understood  and 
valued.  Thus  a  skillful  teacher  may  continually  open  up  new  and 
varied  lines  of  interest,  stimulate  a  constantly  increasing  appre- 
ciation of  the  value  and  beauty  of  the  work  and  so  secure  the 
attention  and  willing  cooperation  of  the  class. 
I/The  technical  side  of  teaching  also  plays  an  important  role  in 
maintaining  attention  throughout  the  lesson.  The  teacher  must 
have  facility  and  be  sure  of  himself  in  such  technical  matters  as 
the  presentation  of  exercises,  the  giving  of  commands  to  start 
and  stop  movements  or  to  handle  the  class  generally.  He  should 
know  how  to  describe  and  demonstrate  the  exercises  in  a  lucid, 
concise  way,  with  as  little  loss  of  time  as  is  consistent  with  clear- 
ness and  vividness.  The  commands  should  be  suitable,  simple  and 
self-explanatory  as  far  as  possible ;  properly  intoned  and  inflected, 
carrying  a  strong  suggestion  of  how  the  movement  should  be 
done  ;  with  sufficient  pause  between  the  preparatory  and  final  parts 


24  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

to  insure  perfect  unison  in  the  execution.  When  the  exercises 
are  done  rhythmically,  he  must  be  able  to  keep  the  class  together, 
"head  off"  an  impending  break  of  unison,  guide  and  modify  the 
rhythm  in  a  way  to  elicit  snap,  speed,  accuracy  and  steadiness  of 
movement  and  keep  it  from  becoming  mechanical,  oscillatory, 
slovenly  or  listless.  He  must  at  all  times  be  ready  and  willing 
to  exert  himself  to  the  utmost  and  be  able  to  keep  a  clear  head 
while  trying  to  do  several  things  at  the  same  time:  stimulating, 
admonishing,  warning  and  correcting  in  a  general  way,  constantly 
moving  about  between  the  lines  or  in  front  of  different  portions 
of  the  class*  observing  everything  in  a  systematic  way,  helping 
by  example,  word  or  touch  first  one  individual  or  group,  then 
another ;  all  the  while  keeping  his  eye  and  ear  on  the  class  as  a 
whole,  marking  the  time,  steadying  the  rhythm  and  from  time  to 
time  vigorously  participating  in  the  movement  in  order  to  stimu- 
late, through  suggestion  and  example,  to  greater  effort  and  atten- 
tion to  details  in  its  execution. 

Special  ways  of  stimulating  a  class.  Dullness  and  poor  re- 
sponse, restlessness  and  inattention,  are  usually  traceable  to  the 
non-observance  by  the  teacher  of  pedagogical  principles  and 
technical  details  of  teaching,  or  else  to  some  shortcoming  or 
peculiarity  in  his  physical  make-up  or  manner.  But  these  things 
may  occasionally  be  due  to  entirely  extraneous  causes,  such  as 
cold,  or  humid,  sultry  weather,  "spring  fever,"  insufficient  light, 
the  effects  of  a  vacation  just  ended  or  impending,  excitement 
about  something  that  has  happened  or  is  going  to  happen  out- 
side of  the  class,  and  having  nothing  whatever  to  do  with 
the  class,  the  teacher  or  the  work.  At  such  times  the  teacher 
is  often  at  a  loss  what  to  do  to  get  in  touch  with  the  class, 
how  to  secure  its  attention,  create  the  right  mental  attitude 
and  elicit  the  snap  and  vigor  he  usually  obtains.  Unless  he 
sizes  up  the  situation  correctly,  he  is  apt  to  lose  patience  or 
presence  of  mind,  become  irritated,  annoyed,  do  the  wrong  thing 
and  thus  make  matters  worse. 

Under  such  circumstances  various  expedients  to  stimulate  in- 
terest may  be  tried.  The  class  may  perhaps  be  rallied  by  greater 
effort  than  usual  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to  infuse  animation 
into  the  work  through  his  own  manner,  voice  and  movements — 
by  liberating  some  of  his  reserve  energy  and  taking  active  part 
in  the  exercises. 

Or  the  attention  may  be  focused  by  drilling  the  class  in  stop- 
ping rhythmical  movements  in  any  intermediate  position  with- 
out much  or  any  warning  and  time  allowance,  providing  such 
demand  is  not  unreasonable. 

Similar  effect  may  be  obtained  by  quick  changes  of  position 
in  response  to  command,  or  some  lively  marching  involving 


DISCIPLINE  AND  ATTENTION  25 

rapid  changes  of  direction,  but  not  requiring  any  lengthy  explana- 
tions or  teaching  of  new  elements.  Such  work,  if  not  carried 
to  the  point  of  confusion,  may  serve  to  put  the  pupils  on  their 
mettle  by  making  those  who  are  inattentive  conspicuous  and 
perhaps  a  little  ludicrous. 

The  spirit  of  emulation  and  rivalry  may  also  be  stimulated  by 
judicious  comparisons  with  the^work  of  other  classes  in  the  in- 
stitution. Such  comparisons,  however,  must  be  expressed  in  a 
tactful  way,  either  humorously  or  seriously.  In  the  latter  case 
they  may  even  be  carried  to  the  point  of  actual  competition. 

Another  expedient,  which  may  prove  effective,  is  to  start  the 
lesson  in  a  way  strikingly  different  from  the  customary  order. 
For  example,  a  short  run,  or  running  with  various  kinds  of  steps, 
or  combined  with  arm  and  body  movements.  This  works  well 
on  a  cold  day.  Or  let  the  class  do  some  lively  passing  of  the 
medicine  ball,  using  as  many  balls  as  possible  and  rather  short 
distances. 

At  times  it  may  be  advisable  to  change  the  character  of  the 
lesson,  to  give  simple,  indefinite  exercises  that  can  be  done  with- 
out too  much  attention  to  detail,  but  with  considerable  vim  and 
continuity.  Mimetic  exercises  of  a  not  too  complicated  charac- 
ter, or  familiar  to  the  class,  are  often  suitable  at  such  times. 
In  the  case  of  young  children,  such  exercises  may  represent 
various  natural  activities  of  man  or  characteristic  movements  of 
animals.  For  older  children,  and  especially  for  boys,  movements 
occurring  in  or  representing  striking  features  of  games  and  sports 
are  suitable.  In  all  such  mimetic  exercises  the  interest  is  se- 
cured or  reenforced  by  enlisting  the  pupils'  imagination. 

With  classes  of  young  children  a  teacher  may  occasionally 
arouse  lively  interest  and  give  much  innocent  pleasure  to  the 
children  by  letting  them  take  turns  in  giving  exercises  to  the 
class.  This  is,  of  course,  really  a  modification  of  the  game  "Fol- 
low the  leader,"  but  the  children  probably  do  not  think  of  it  in 
that  way. 

In  any  class  whatever,  the  substitution  of  a  game  for  a  part 
or  the  whole  of  a  lesson  that  threatens  to  be  a  failure  is  almost 
invariably  satisfactory.  But  it  must  be  a  game  that  is  familiar 
or  easily  organized,  and  in  which  every  one  has  a  chance,  or 
rather  is  compelled,  to  be  active,  both  mentally  and  physically. 
In  such  a  game  the  teacher  should,  if  possible,  take  part  with 
genuine  animation  and  enthusiasm. 

Finally,  if  none  of  these  or  similar  expedients  are  feasible 
for  any  reason,  or  if  some  of  those  first  mentioned  are  ineffect- 
ive, the  only  alternative  is  to  accept  the  situation  as  cheerfully 
and  patiently  as  possible.  Let  the  class  know  that  you  are  aware 


26  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

of  the  probable  cause,  and  treat  the  situation  good-naturedly  or 
humorously,  as  the  case  may  be,  taking  the  attitude  that  after 
all  it  is  only  a  temporary  condition  and  will  be  made  up  for 
next  time. 


4.     ENERGETIC  LEADERSHIP  AND  FRIENDLY  RELATIONS. 

The  influence  of  suggestion  and  example.  The  teacher's  men- 
tal state  and  physical  condition,  as  shown  in  his  manner  and 
appearance  before  the  class,  greatly  influence  the  quality  of  the 
work,  the  atmosphere  and  tone,  and  therefore  the  degree  of  suc- 
cess of  the  lesson.  The  class  quickly  senses  and  accurately  reflects 
any  temporary  or  habitual  condition  of  low  vitality,  any  sign  of 
depression  or  overfatigue  on  the  part  of  the  teacher.  Both  the 
teacher  and  class  have  "off  days"  and  not  infrequently  these 
coincide,  sometimes  when  least  expected.  Occasionally  the  cause 
of  such  coincidence  may  be  perfectly  obvious,  such  as  atmos- 
pheric conditions,  external  disturbance,  etc. ;  but  more  often  it 
can  be  explained  only  by  attributing  it  to  the  unconscious  reaction 
of  the  teacher  on  the  class  and  vice  versa.  The  potency  of  sug- 
gestion, for  good  or  ill,  is  always  to  be  reckoned  with  and  should 
be  constantly  borne  in  mind.  It  is  largely  through  the  suggestive 
power  of  example  that  the  right  spirit  of  the  work  is  created 
and  sustained. 

Appearing  before  the  class  irritated,  nervous  and  disturbed,  or 
dull,  absent-minded  and  careless,  will  invariably  lead  to  un- 
steadiness, inattention,  slackness  or  listlessness  on  the  part  of 
the  class,  and  so  will  weaken  the  teacher's  control.  On  the  other 
hand,  a  brisk,  energetic,  business-like  manner  acts  like  a  stimu- 
lus and  tends  to  produce  a  like  mental  state  in  the  pupils. 

Vigorous  participation  by  the  teacher  in  the  exercises  has  a 
similar  effect.  It  is  always  helpful  in  suggesting  the  proper 
speed  of  a  movement,  steadiness  in  retaining  each  intermediate 
position,  sureness  in  the  rhythm.  It  may  sometimes  succeed  in 
rousing  a  class  to  spirited  action  when  other  means  of  stimulation 
have  proved  unavailing.  Indeed,  it  is  one  of  the  most  common 
expedients  and  the  chief  resource  of.  many  teachers  in  their  en- 
deavor to  put  life  and  enthusiasm  into  a  lesson. 

Like  all  good  things,  however,  this  participation  in  the  work 
may  be  overdone.  If  indulged  in  too  freely  (and  to  teachers 
with  abundant  vitality  the  temptation  to  do  so  is  often  strong), 
it  tends  to  lose  its  effectiveness  for  the  purpose  of  stimulation 
as  the  class  becomes  accustomed  to  it.  Also,  it  is  liable  to  limit 
the  teacher's  chances  and  defeat  his  efforts  to  obtain  a  good 
quality  of  work  in  other  respects  than  those  of  continuity,  swing 


LEADERSHIP  AND  FRIENDLY  RELATIONS  27 

and  go.  For  if  the  teacher  remains  most  of  the  time  in  one 
place,  strenuously  going  through  all  the  exercises  with  the  class 
while  counting  to  keep  time,  he  does  so  at  the  expense  and  to 
the  neglect  of  other  important  phases  and  duties  of  teaching. 
He  is  bound  to  fall  short  in  systematic  and  critical  observation 
of  the  work  of  all  the  pupils,  in  careful  attention  to  details  of 
execution,  in  individual  stimulation  and  correction.  In  the 
nature  of  things  he  has  neither  breath  nor  opportunity  for  any- 
thing more  than  very  brief,  general  admonitions  and  a  "vvhoop- 
it-up"  kind  of  stimulation.  This  sometimes  takes  the  form  of 
an  extravagant  speeding  up  of  the  rhythm  coupled  with  numer- 
ous repetitions  of  the  same  movement,  and  may  be  carried  to 
such  an  extreme  that  all  semblance  to  definiteness  and  even  uni- 
son in  execution  is  lost.  At  such  times  it  is  not  unusual  to 
see  one  after  another  of  the  members  of  the  class  discontinuing 
the  exercise  from  sheer  breathlessness  and  local  fatigue,  until 
only  the  teacher  and  a  small  portion  of  the  class  are  working. 
Only  rarely  is  such  a  procedure  justifiable,  and  in  the  long  run 
it  will  militate  against  the  best  interests  of  the  work  as  well  as 
the  teacher. 

One  other  objection  may  be  urged  against  habitual  or  exces- 
sive execution  of  the  exercises  by  the  teacher.  If  the  class  is 
constantly  carried  along  by  the  teacher  in  this  way  the  work  be- 
comes too  nearly  imitative,  amounting  often  to  nothing  more 
than  reflex  action.  The  pupils  are  given  less  opportunity  to 
think  and  act  for  themselves,  to  execute  -voluntary  movements 
in  the  true  sense.  They  come  to  depend  too  much  on  the 
teacher's  movements  and  too  little  on  their  own  initative.  They 
are  given  an  apparent  short-cut  to  their  solving  of  motor  prob- 
lems and  even  then,  as  likely  as  not,  they  fail  to  get  the  correct 
solution. 

In  view  of  the  drawbacks  inherent  in  this  style  of  teaching, 
and  sometimes  on  other,  less  valid  grounds  (such  as  inability 
to  do  the  movements  well,  disinclination  to  vigorous  bodily  exer- 
tion, failure  to  dress  appropriately,  etc.),  many  teachers  refrain 
entirely  from  participation  in  the  exercises.  In  so  doing  they 
deprive  themselves  and  the  class  of  a  valuable  help  in  teaching 
and  a  legitimate  means  of  stimulation.  It  is  unquestionably  an 
advantage  to  a  teacher  to  be  able  and  prepared  at  any  time,  and 
especially  in  the  beginning  of  a  lesson  or  the  starting  of  an  exer- 
cise, to  throw  himself  into  the  movement  with  abounding  energy, 
executing  it  with  more  power  and  "finish"  than  any  member 
of  the  class.  But  the  wise  teacher  will  not  do  it  too  much  and, 
above  all,  not  in  a  routine  way. 

Good  results  may  also  be  obtained  by  applying  this  principle 
in  a  slightly  different  way.  Put  the  suggestion  of  snap  and 


28 

effort  into  the  voice  when  giving  the  commands  or  while  guid- 
ing the  rhythm,  and  also  by  bodily  attitude,  gesture  and  even 
facial  expression  (unconscious  of  course),  when  making  general 
admonitions  and  correction.  By  thus  working  with  and  for  the 
class  with  mind  and  body,  by  word,  cues  and  other  forms  of 
suggestion,  if  not  by  detailed  execution  of  all  the  movements,  the 
teacher  can  not  only  elicit  the  most  vigorous  action  from  the 
class,  but  also  arouse  the  spirit  of  emulation,  and  establish  the 
sympathetic  relations  without  which  cheerful  cooperation  cannot 
be  expected.  The  cold,  formal  way  of  teaching,  merely  giving 
commands  interspersed  with  routine,  stereotyped  instruction, 
sharp,  peremptory  corrections  or  warnings  and  trite,  timeworn 
admonitions,  will  soon  deaden  interest  and  enjoyment  in  the 
work  and  make  it  lifeless  and  perfunctory.  It  puts  the  teacher 
in  the  role  of  a  taskmaster,  and  is  incompatible  with  the  true 
spirit  of  the  work. 

Personal  relations  between  teacher  and  class.  Most  teachers 
probably  aspire  to  be  popular  with  their  pupils.  Such  a  desire 
is  commendable,  providing  the  popularity  is  of  the  right  kind. 
It  should  be  based  on  respect  and  affection  for  the  teacher's  per- 
sonality combined  with  a  serious  and  intelligent  appreciation  of 
his  professional  attainments,  namely,  the  effectiveness  of  his  work 
and  his  skill  in  teaching  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it  interest- 
ing. A  teacher  may  sometimes  be  popular  by  virtue  of  some 
natural  advantage  of  appearance,  charm  of  manner,  social  quali- 
ties, or  commanding  presence.  But  unless  he  can  make  such  per- 
sonal attributes  count  in  his  teaching,  can  offer  his  pupils  the 
.kind  of  work  adapted  to  their  needs  and  abilities,  can  present 
such  work  and  get  it  done  in  a  way  to  serve  the  best  interests 
of  all  the  pupils,  his  popularity  is  of  a  shallow  kind.  It  is  apt 
to  wane  in  the  long  run,  or  to  be  confined  to  a  limited  number. 
Almost  any  teacher  with  an  attractive  personality,  or  with  a  pre- 
dilection for  and  skill  in  some  particular  phase  of  the  work,  can 
get  a  personal  popularity  or  following  of  this  limited  kind,  and 
for  a  time  achieve  a  certain  kind  of  success.  But  it  is  not  the 
genuine  kind  unless  the  results  of  the  work  are  what  they  ought 
to  be. 

Whatever  the  natural  advantages  of  a  teacher  may  be,  if  he 
have  force  of  character  and  the  spirit  of  teaching,  combined  with 
a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  subject,  he  may  command  the 
esteem,  respect  and  in  due  time  even  the  affection  of  his  pupils 
through  their  appreciation  of  his  work,  by  the  justice  or  "square- 
ness" of  his  dealing  with  them,  and  by  the  genuine,  sympathetic 
interest  he  takes  in  their  welfare.  Nor  need  he  fear  that  a  firm 
insistence  on  order  and  discipline,  attention  and  vigorous  effort 


LEADERSHIP  AND  FRIENDLY  RELATIONS  29 

will  detract  from  his  popularity.  Quite  the  contrary.  The  more 
he  can  imbue  them  with  a  sense  of  the  value  and  beauty  of  a 
strict,  business-like  atmosphere  in  the  classroom;  the  stronger 
his  will  power — in  the  sense  of  proceeding  undeviatingly  to  a 
desired  end  and  bringing  the  pupils  along  with  him,  demanding 
their  best  and  accepting  nothing  less: — the  more  they  will  respect 
and  appreciate  him  and  the  work.  But  this  will  power  must 
be  of  the  lasting  kind.  It  must  be  guided  and  tempered  by  rea- 
sonableness, patience  and  sympathy.  A  part  of  the  teacher's 
business  is  to  know  how  much  he  can  expect  from  a  class,  both 
in  the  way  of  work  and  behavior.  He  must  bear  patiently  with 
the  shortcomings,  understand  and  gauge  the  ability,  the  effort 
and  the  possibilities  of  the  class  and  its  individual  members.  To 
combine  encouragement  with  stimulation  and  prodding;  to  con- 
done while  administering  rebuke,  to  correct  and  admonish  in  a 
spirit  of  helpfulness — in  short,  to  work  and  deal  with  his  pupils 
in  a  sympathetic,  friendly  way,  to  the  best  of  his  knowledge  and 
ability,  is  the  surest  way  to  control  a  class  and  at  the  same  time 
to  secure  and  retain  its  good  will. 

A  due  respect  for  the  sense  of  justice  and  the  feelings  of  the 
class  and  of  its  individual  members  is  essential  to  friendly  rela- 
tions and  the  right  spirit  of  cooperation.  Do  not  annoy  or  harass 
a  class  by  unjust  scolding  and  nagging.  Refrain  from  excessive 
repetition  of  certain  movements  in  order  to  eliminate  non-essen- 
tial faults,  or  in  order  to  correct  and  rebuke  a  few  individuals. 
A  little  of  this  kind  of  stimulation  may  be  effective  at  times,  if 
accompanied  by  explicit  statement  of  reasons  for  such  repetition, 
but  it  is  easily  overdone. 

Cultivate  the  habit  of  maintaining  a  friendly  attitude  toward 
the  class  even  when  obliged  to  censure  severely  some  individuals. 
Guard  against  the  temptation  to  reproach  the  class  as  a  whole  for 
slackness,  misbehavior,  tardiness,  etc.,  on  the  part  of  a  few  of  its 
members.  Such  a  course  is  manifestly  unjust  and  is  always  re- 
sented. If  habitual  it  lowers  the  respect  of  the  pupils  for  the 
teacher  and  leads  to  indifference,  antagonism  and  ill  will.  The 
same  is  true  of  sarcasm,  peremptory  admonitions,  imperious  or 
outright  "bossy"  manner — anything  which  humiliates  or  wounds 
the  self-respect  of  the  pupils,  individually  or  collectively.  Avoid 
the  use  of  the  personal  pronoun  in  giving  directions.  "I  want 
you  to  do  thus  and  so"  carries  too  strong  a  suggestion  of  purely 
personal  masterfulness  akin  to  arrogance.  It  implies  that  the 
class  is  working  for  the  teacher  instead  of  for  itself. 

The  matter  of  praise  is  of  considerable  importance.  Be  prompt 
to  acknowledge  good  work,  especially  when  the  class,  after  some 
slackness  or  ragged  performance,  has  made  obvious  efforts  to 


30  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

pull  itself  together  in  response  to  the  teacher's  stimulation,  cen- 
sure or  quiet  demand  for  better  work.  Extravagant  praise  and 
even  routine  approbation  of  ordinary  performance  is  of  course 
weakening,  both  to  the  teacher  and  class.  It  indicates  superla- 
tiveness,  or  too  low  standards  of  quality  on  his  part,  while  it 
conduces  to  mediocrity  and  easy  complacence  on  the  part  of  the 
class.  But  considering  that  good  teaching  necessarily  involves 
frequent  correction  and  criticism,  unsatisfactory  trials  and  repeti- 
tions, it  is  wise  to  offset  this  negative  element  to  some  extent 
by  a  reasonable  modicum  of  praise,  when  the  work  is  such  as 
to  justify  it.  Approbation  of  this  kind,  rendered  as  the  just 
due  to  honest  effort,  gives  more  point  to  the  constant  admonitions, 
the  necessary  insistence  on  close  attention  to  detail,  which  other- 
wise would  easily  degenerate  into  tedious  nagging. 

Furthermore,  such  simple  expressions  of  approval  as  "Good !" 
or  "That's  better!"  or  "You  are  doing  well,  keep  it  up!"  or 
some  humorous  comment  of  laudatory  character,  if  made  with 
the  ring  of  sincerity  and  genuine  satisfaction  in  the  voice,  have 
a  marked  stimulating  effect.  The  pupils  are  gratified  and  spurred 
to  greater  willingness  and  intelligent  effort.  Their  eyes  and 
facial  expressions  show  this,  as  well  as  the  increased  snap,  vigor 
and  unison  of  their  movements.  Finally,  when  a  whole  lesson 
has  been  unusually  satisfactory  from  the  teacher's  standpoint, 
it  is  well  for  him  to  say  so,  before  dismissing  the  class,  in  as 
simple  and  gracious  terms  as  he  can  muster. 

Prompt  admission  of  being  at  fault,  when  such  is  the  case, 
effectively  heads  off  trouble  and  is  conducive  to  good  relations. 
Whenever  the  teacher  is  guilty  of  an  error  of  judgment  or  makes 
a  slip  in  his  teaching,  the  mistake  must  be  corrected  and  any 
unfavorable  impression  effaced  as  soon  as  possible.  If  the  error 
is  of  a  technical  character,  a  prompt  acknowledgment  with  due 
appreciation  of  the  humorous  aspects  of  the  situation  will 
strengthen  rather  than  weaken  the  teacher's  power,  providing 
such  occurrences  are  not  too  frequent.  If  the  mistake  involves 
the  personal  relations  between  teacher  and  class  (or  some  individ- 
ual), an  open-minded  willingness  to  see  all  sides  of  the  case,  a 
frank,  dignified  admission  and  regret  if  in  the  wrong,  are  usually 
sufficient  to  allay  resentment  or  any  tendency  to  antagonism. 

The  teacher  can  do  much  toward  establishing  cordial  rela- 
tions between  himself  and  the  class  by  taking  and  showing  inter- 
est in  its  members  outside  of  actual  class  work.  The  way  he 
greets  them  and  chats  with  them  on  informal  occasions  or  chance 
meetings  has  much  to  do  with  their  feelings  toward  him.  So  does 
real  community  of  interests,  as  in  their  games  and  athletics,  their 
social  affairs  or  their  hobbies.  It  makes  for  better  acquaintance 


LEADERSHIP  AND  FRIENDLY  RELATIONS  31 

and  good  fellowship.  Understanding  of  and  sympathetic  interest 
in  their  school  work,  their  ambitions  and  particularly  their  health 
and  physical  condition,  are  conducive  to  confidence.  Be  ready 
to  give  help,  advice  and  encouragement  whenever  needed,  yet 
without  being  officious.  All  these  things  are  natural  and  legiti- 
mate channels  for  the  expression  of  good  will  and  comradeship, 
points  of  contact  through  which  the  teacher  can  get  into  personal 
touch  with  his  pupils  in  a  dignified  yet  democratic  way. 

Where  physical  examinations  are  a  part  of  the  work  the  teacher 
has  many  opportunities  for  friendly  service  other  than  purely 
professional.  Here  he  can  not  only  help  the  pupils  to  a  better 
understanding  of  their  physical  needs  and  point  out  the  right 
line  of  action,  but  may  often  be  the  means  of  clearing  their  minds 
of  misconceptions,  of  influencing  their  points  of  view.  He  may 
be  able  to  plant  seeds  of  suggestion  or  to  give  advice  which  may 
lead  to  better  standards  and  higher  ideals  of  life  and  work.  The 
real  service  a  teacher  can  render  in  this  way — hygienically,  morally 
and  socially — is  as  much  a  part  of  his  function  as  the  formal 
teaching.  Indeed,  when  the  relations  between  teacher  and  pupils 
have  come  to  be  of  mutually  friendly  and  confidential  nature, 
the  teacher  can  often  do  more  good  in  an  informal  way  than  in 
the  actual  teaching.  At  any  rate,  he  can  follow  up  his  formal 
teaching  and  try  to  induce  the  pupils  to  supplement  the  class  work 
by  making  efforts  to  apply  what  they  have  learned  to  their  daily 
habits. 

It  pays  to  be  approach'able,  to  spend  time  and  patient  effort  in 
friendly  discussion  with  pupils  outside  of  class,  giving  reasons 
for  doing  some  things  in  a  certain  way,  for  omitting  or  post- 
poning other  things;  in  explaining  the  mechanism  and  effects  of 
exercises  in  a  way  which  they  can  readily  understand ;  in  contrast- 
ing the  values  of  different  forms  of  exercise.  Sometimes  it  may 
be  advisable  to  prove,  as  far  as  feasible,  the  reasonableness,  jus- 
tice or  necessity  of  requiring  a  pupil  to  do  something  which  may 
be  inconvenient  or  onerous  to  him  at  the  time.  It  is  good  policy, 
generally,  to  satisfy  the  pupils'  minds  and  take  them  into  your 
confidence  as  far  as  your  time  allows  and  your  judgment  and 
sympathy  dictate. 


III.     METHODS    AND    TECHNIQUE. 

The  several  factors  of  successful  teaching — personality,  un- 
derstanding of  pedagogic  principles,  knowledge  and  proper  man- 
agement of  gymnastic  material,  and  the  special  technique  of 
teaching — are  all  so  intimately  related  that  in  practice  it  would 
be  difficult  to  dissociate  them.  Yet,  we  may  recognize  distinc- 
tions in  these  respects.  Some  teachers  may  get  results  in  certain 
directions  chiefly  by  virtue  of  their  personality,  while  they  fall 
short  in  other  directions  owing  to  deficient  knowledge  of  prin- 
ciples, or  insufficient  skill  in  the  technique  of  teaching,  or  both. 
The  reverse  may  also  be  true  to  some  extent.  At  any  rate,  for 
purposes  of  analysis  and  discussion,  certain  phases  of  teaching 
may  be  grouped  under  the  head  of  technique.  Such,  for  example, 
are  methods  of  formation  and  distribution  of  the  class  on  the 
floor;  the  uses  of  commands;  of  the  active  and  relaxed  posi- 
tions ;  methods  of  demonstration,  instruction  and  correction ;  de- 
vices for  stimulation;  variations  in  the  style  of  work — whether 
single  movements  on  command,  or  rhythmical;  the  selection  and 
combination  of  movements  according  to  the  style  of  work  and 
the  method  of  teaching  it.  All  these  technical  details  represent, 
of  course,  applications  of  pedagogic  principles,  and  their  effect- 
iveness is  largely  dependent  on  proper  progression  and  arrange- 
ment, as  well  as  on  the  personal  qualities  of  the  teacher. 

1.     FORMATIONS,  DISTRIBUTION  AND  POSITION  OF  CLASS  ON  THE 

FLOOR. 

The  choice  of  formation  and  the  methods  of  opening  order 
will  be  determined,  among  other  things,  by  the  facility  of  teach- 
ing them,  by  the  ease  and  speed  of  their  execution,  by  the  amount 
of  time  and  room  available.  Other  considerations  are  the  spac- 
ing and  distance  suitable  for  the  kind  of  work  to  be  taught,  the 
distribution  most  favorable  for  giving  the  teacher  a  full  view 
of  the  class  and  for  enabling  all  members  of  the  class  to  see  and 
hear  the  teacher.  The  extent  to  which  the  class  can  "see  itself" 
is  also  of  some  consequence  through  its  influence  on  unison  and 
rhythm.  Finally,  the  symmetrical  and  orderly  arrangement  of 
the  class  and  the  manoeuvering  necessary  to  obtain  it  are  not 
without  effect  on  its  members.  The  close  attention  required,  as 
well  as  the  suggestion  of  order  and  discipline,  are  conducive  to 
the  proper  spirit  of  the  work. 


POSITION  OF  CLASS  ON  FLOOR  33 

The  following  are  some  of  the  more  common  and  simple  pro- 
cedures : 

1.  Perhaps  the  simplest  and  easiest  way  to  get  a  class  arranged 
in  open  order  is  to  have  the  pupils,  on  the  signal,  take  their 
places  on  spots  painted  on  the  floor  at  proper  distances  (say  at 
intervals  of  five  feet,  in  rows  about  four  feet  apart,  the  spots 
in  each  row  being  placed  half  way  between  those  of  the  next). 
This  obviates  the  necessity  for  'any  preliminaries,  such  as  align- 
ment, numbering,  facings  and  marching  steps.     It  may  be  of  ad- 
vantage under  conditions   where  the  spirit   and   traditions   are 
strongly  against  anything  savoring  of  formality  or  military  dis- 
cipline, or  where  the  necessary  time  for  preliminaries  cannot  be 
spared.     It  is  especially  useful  in  large  classes,  with  irregular 
attendance,  where  the  main  purpose  of  the  work  is  hygienic,  and 
the  educational  or  disciplinary  value  of  even  a  few  simple  manoeu- 
vers  necessary  to  open  order  would  not  be  appreciated.   In  classes 
where  record  of  attendance  is  kept,  and  each  member  is  assigned 
a  numbered  spot,  the  roll  call  may  be  simplified  by  noting  the 
absences  on  a  plotted  sheet  of  paper  or  on  a  numbered  name  file. 
Spots  may  also  be  used  to  advantage  in  conjunction  with  some 
of  the  more  formal  procedures  of  opening  order,  especially  those 
preceded  by  marching. 

2.  The  next  easiest  way  to  get  a  class  together  and  into  open 
order  is  to  line  it  up  in  a  single  rank,  count  twos,  let  numbers 
One  take  one  or  two  steps  forward  and  numbers  Two  the  same 
number  of  steps  backward.     The  spacing  and  distribution  are 
such  that  most  movements  can  be  executed  without  interference 
of  the  pupils  with  each  other,  if  the  class  is  faced  toward  one 
end.     A  few  exercises,  however,  such  as  the  prone  falling  posi- 
tion, forward  and  backward  charges,  require  that  the  class  be 
faced  to  the  front. 

This  formation  is  suitable  for  small  classes  (of  twenty  or  less). 
It  is  so  simple  that  a  class  soon  learns  to  make  it  with  speed  and 
precision.  It  gives  the  teacher  a  good  view  of  each  pupil  from 
any  side  of  the  class.  When  the  class  is  faced  toward  one  end, 
the  lines  are  easily  kept  straight,  serving  as  guides  for  the  plane 
and  direction  of  movements.  The  spacing »is  readily  maintained 
or  adjusted.  All  the  pupils  can  see  the  teacher  without  difficulty 
and  the  majority  can  see  a  considerable  portion  of  the  lines. 

3.  Another  simple  and  fairly  easy  method  of  opening  order, 
differing  but  slightly  in  principle  from  the  preceding,  is  to  form 
one  rank,  count  threes  (fours,  or  even  fives,  according  to  the 
size  of  the  class),  then  let  each  individual  take  as  many  (long) 
steps  forward  as  is  indicated  by  his  number,  or  twice  as  many 
(short)  steps  backward.    Or  let  numbers  One  stand  still,  num- 


34  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

bers  Two  take  one  step  forward,  numbers  Three  two  steps,  etc. 
(or  twice  as  many  backward).  Or,  in  case  of  threes,  numbers 
Two  stand  still,  numbers  One  take  one  step  forward,  numbers 
Three  one  step  backward.  In  such  a  formation  all  exercises  can 
be  done  with  the  class  facing  to  the  front,  except  perhaps  club 
swinging  and  exercises  with  very  long  bar  bells. 

The  disadvantage  here,  as  in  the  preceding,  is  that  the  class 
is  spread  out  too  much  in  one  direction,  and  space  is  not  used 
economically.  This  may  be  an  important  item  if  the  class  is 
large  and  the  room  scant.  Then,  too,  the  lines  are  apt  to  be  less 
distinct  and  not  very  readily  straightened.  The  class  cannot  "see 
itself"  to  the  same  extent  as  in  formations  where  many  pupils 
stand  behind  each  other  in  long,  straight  lines.  The  importance 
of  the  last  is,  of  course,  not  very  great,  but  should  be  considered. 
Furthermore,  when  a  different  number  of  steps  are  taken  by 
different  portions  of  the  class,  all  starting  together,  but  finish- 
ing one  after  another,  the  unison  and  rhythm  are  apt  to  suffer. 
There  are  lacking  the  symmetrical  appearance  and  the  full, 
rhythmic  sound  of  uniform  action  which  stimulate  a  class  to 
lively  response.  However,  this  formation  works  fairly  well  with 
semi-informal  classes  in  which  the  membership  is  varying  and 
the  attendance  irregular. 

4.  The  next  in  order,  as  regards  simplicity,  or  at  least  facility 
of  execution  with  a  large  class,  is  to  line  up  in  one  rank  near 
one  of  the  long  sides  of  the  gymnasium;  count  fours  (fives  or 
sixes)  ;  face  right  (or  left),  making  a  long  single  file  facing  one 
of  the  ends  of  the  hall.  Then  command  "Forward,  march!" 
"Column  left  (or  right),  march!"  and  continue  marching  until 
the  first  group  of  four  (five  or  six)  has  turned  the  corner  and 
taken  ample  distance.  On  the  command  this  group  then  faces 
left  (or  right)  and  marches  forward  with  short  steps  while  the 
next  group  turns  the  corner,  takes  full  distance,  faces,  marches 
forward,  and  so  on,  until  the  whole  class  is  marching  down  the 
hall  in  an  open  column  of  fours  (fives  or  sixes).  If  hand  ap- 
paratus is  to  be  used,  this  can  be  taken  from  the  racks  while 
the  class  marches  once  around  the  hall  in  a  single  file. 

As  a  slight  variation  on  the  above  method  the  groups  may 
remain  in  close  order  after  turning  the  corner,  and  the  lateral 
distance  may  be  obtained  by  taking  side  steps  after  the  class  has 
arrived  at  the  proper  place  on  the  floor  and  is  marking  time. 
This  may  be  made  a  rather  pretty  manoeuver  if  executed  with 
precision  and  good  alignment.  Some  such  command  as  "Form 
column  of  fours:  Fours,  by  the  left  flank,  march!"  may  be  used 
to  change  the  single  file  into  a  column  of  fours. 

Other  variations  on  this  method  of  opening  order  readily  sug- 
gest themselves.  When  marching  is  used  regularly  as  a  part 


POSITION  OF  CLASS  ON  FLOOR  35 

of  the  lesson,  a  column  of  fours  may  be  formed,  either  from  a 
stand  still  or  while  marching,  by  giving  "Fours  right  (or  left), 
march!"  or  "Fours  right  (or  left)  oblique,  march!"  or  by  any 
of  the  various  manoeuvers  so  well  described  by  Mr.  Schrader 
in  his  article  on  the  "Teaching  of  Tactics."* 

5.  With  classes  of  children  the  following  may  be  used  to 
advantage:  After  marching  half-way  around  the  room  in  single 
file,  turn  at  one  end  and  march  down  through  the  center.     At- 
the  other  end  alternate  pupils  are  turned  right  and  left  respec- 
tively and  march  up  on  opposite  sides  of  the  room.     They  then 
meet  and  march  down  the  center  in  pairs.     Then  alternate  pairs 
are  turned  right  and  left,  meet  again  and  form  fours,  march 
down  the  center  and   open   up  as   described   in   the  preceding 
paragraph.    This  manceuver  takes  considerable  time,  but  it  makes 
numbering  unnecessary.    When  the  children  come  into  the  gym- 
nasium in  a  double  file  the  whole  procedure  can  be  managed 
fairly  quickly,  only  one  division  and  one  circuit  of  the  room 
being  necessary. 

6.  When   classes   are   large   enough   to   make   a   preliminary 
formation  on  two  ranks  desirable,  modifications  of  the  methods 
described  in  paragraph  four  may  be  used,  providing  the  class 
is  proficient  enough  in  marching  to  warrant  it.     Modifications 
of  the  methods  described  in  paragraphs  two  and  three  may  be 
used,  with  or  without  preliminary  marching,  as  follows: 

7.  If  the  method  described  in  paragraph  three  is  used,  the 
ranks  are  first  opened  by  three  or  four  steps  forward  or  back- 
ward by  one  rank,  or  by  each  rank  taking  two  steps  in  opposite 
directions.     Then   numbers   One,   Two  and  Three  open  up   as 
described  for  one  rank.     The  disadvantages  of  this  formation 
are  similar  to  those  already  suggested  as  inherent  in  this  method 
with  the  single  rank  formation. 

8.  With  classes  of  moderate  size — from  twenty  to  sixty — a 
modification  of  the  method  described  in  paragraph  two  is,  on 
the  whole,  the  most  satisfactory.     The  preliminary   formation 
consists  of  two  ranks,  a  little  more  than  arm's  distance  apart. 
After  aligning  and  counting  twos  (in  the  front  rank  only),  the 
ranks  are  opened  by  the  front  rank  taking  two  steps  forward 
and  the  rear  rank  two  steps  backward.     Numbers  One  in  both 
ranks  then  take  one  step  forward,  numbers  Two  take  one  step 
backward.     The  class  is  then  faced  toward  the  short  end  and    , 
the   lines    straightened.      In    the    beginning,    each    part    of    the/ 
manceuver  is  best  done  on  separate,  command,  even  each  of  the 
two  steps  taken  in  opening  ranks.     Later  the  whole  may  be  done 
on  one  command,  including  the   facing.     Still  later  the   facing 

*The  Teaching  of  Tactics.     Carl  L.  Schrader.     Am.  Phys.  Ed.  Rev.,  Feb.,  1912. 


36  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

may  be  taken  first,  the  lines  are  then  opened  by  each  taking  two 
clean-cut  side  steps  in  opposite  directions, — after  which  numbers 
One  take  one  step  to  right  (toward  the  side  of  the  front  rank), 
numbers  Two  one  step  to  left  (toward  the  side  of  the  rear 
rank).  In  its  final,  perfected  form  the  whole  manoeuver  may 
be  executed  on  one  command  such  as  "Left  (or  right),  open 
order,  march!"  To  attain  speed,  unison  and  "finish"  in  this 
method  of  opening  order  requires  considerable  practice,  as  well 
as  good  discipline  and  perfect  attention  on  the  part  of  the  class, 
and  unlimited  patience  and  perseverance  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  But  it  is  worth  the  effort  in  the  long  run.  To  insure 
unison  and  proper  rhythm,  make  the  pause  between  the  facing 
and  the  steps,  as  well  as  between  each  step,  relatively  long;  in- 
sist that  the  weight  is  not  transferred  to  the  advancing  foot  until 
the  last  moment,  and  that  the  following  foot  is  lifted  clean  and 
clapped  smartly  to  the  other.  Dragging  the  following  foot  makes 
the  whole  movement  slovenly.  With  classes  of  varying  mem- 
bership and  irregular  attendance  this  procedure  would  probably 
not  be  satisfactory. 

With  classes  numbering  more  than  sixty  or  seventy  the  same 
principle  of  opening  order  may  be  used  from  a  preliminary  for- 
mation of  three  ranks.  The  middle  rank  stands  still  while  the 
front  rank  takes  four  steps  forward,  the  rear  rank  four  steps 
backward  (or  each  takes  the  same  number  of  side  steps  in  op- 
posite directions).  Numbers  One  and  Two  then  open  up  by  one 
step  each,  in  opposite  directions.  This  is  not  a  very  satisfactory 
method,  however,  owing  to  the  difficulties  of  getting  the  prelimi- 
nary alignment  and  numbering  done  quickly  and  well. 

A  better  way  in  the  case  of  very  large  classes  is  to  line  up 
in  two  or  more  divisions  at  proper  distances,  each  on  two  ranks, 
and  then  proceed  exactly  as  when  the  class  is  undivided.  The 
only  difference  is  that  the  divisions  stand  on  lines  parallel  with 
the  short  axis  of  the  room.  When  such  divisions  are  necessary, 
it  is  well  to  have  assistants  or  monitors  help  supervise  the  pre- 
liminary alignment  and  numbering.  With  such  large  classes  a 
platform  is  very  convenient,  if  not  necessary,  for  occasional  use. 

Variation  in  the  formation,  by  facings,  during  class  exercises. 

Having  arranged  the  class  in  open  order  on  the  floor,  it  is  not 
always  best  nor  even  practicable  to  keep  it  facing  the  same  way 
throughout  the  lesson.  Thus,  for  example,  if  the  spacing  is 
close  and  alternating,  certain  movements  cannot  be  very  well 
executed  when  the  class  is  facing  to  the  front,  shoulder  to 
shoulder  (front  or  rank  formation),  such  as  arm  movements 
and  leg  raisings  sideways  and  side  lunges;  while  such  exercises 


POSITION  OF  CLASS  ON  FLOOR  37 

as  the  prone  falling  position,  movements  from  the  lying  position, 
leg  flinging  forward,  and  forward  or  backward  charges  cannot 
be  done  without  risk  of  interference  when  the  class  faces  one 
end,  pupils  standing  one  behind  the  other  in  long  files  (flank  or 
file  formation). 

Occasionally  an  oblique  formation  may  be  necessary  for  the 
proper,  unhindered  execution  of  most  of  .the  exercises.  This 
applies  especially  when  the  pupils  in  contiguous  files  stand  abreast 
of  each  other,  as  would  be  the  case  if  the  methods  of  opening 
order  described  in  paragraphs  four  and  five  have  been  used,  and 
when  the  spacing  is  necessarily  inadequate  from  lack  of  room. 
This  difficulty  might  also  be  obviated  by  having  every  other  file 
take  a  step  forward.  When  work  is  carried  on  in  school  rooms, 
between  the  desks,  the  oblique  formation  gives  most  room  and 
freedom  from  interference  by  desks  or  neighbors. 

Besides  varying  the  choice  of  the  three  formations — front, 
flank  and  oblique — on  grounds  of  convenience  as  regards  the 
execution  of  movements,  the  formation  may  also  be  varied  for 
the  purpose  of  aiding  the  pupils  to  execute  the  movements  cor- 
rectly. This  applies  especially  when  beginning  work  with  an 
untrained  class,  but  it  is  helpful  at  all  times  in  giving  the  pupils 
guides  or  landmarks  by  which  they  may  be  aided  in  finding  the 
right  plane  or  direction  of  movements.  For  example,  in  a  trunk 
bending  sideways,  the  chances  for  exact  performance,  uncompli- 
cated by  other  elements  like  twisting,  forward  or  backward  bend- 
ing, are  a  little  better  when  done  in 'a  flank  than  in  a  front  for- 
mation. This  enables  the  pupils  to  look  along  their  own  lines 
and  usually  al^o  along  the  lines  or  boards  on  the  floor.  In  for- 
ward bending  of  trunk,  forward  foot  placings  and  charges,  a 
front  formation  seems  to  work  better  than  a  flank  formation. 
For  oblique  charges  the  oblique  formation  may  be  helpful  at 
first. 

Another  consideration,  and  an  important  one,  by  which  the 
choice  of  formations  should  be  determined,  is  the  degree  to  which 
it  facilitates  systematic  observation  of  the  work  by  the  teacher. 
Each  ensemble  movement  may  be  observed  better  from  one  point 
of  view  than  from  any  other.  With  the  class  faced  in  the  most 
suitable  way  and  the  teacher  standing  at  a  point  or  moving  along 
a  line  giving  the  best  view  of  the  greatest  number,  he  can  "sight" 
along  the  lines  of  pupils  and  easily  see  every  deviation  from  cor- 
rect execution.  For  example,  a  forward  or  "backward"  bending 
of  trunk,  a  forward  charge  qr  a  toe-support  (reverse)  charge 
can  be  best  seen  from  one  end  of  the  class  when  in  front  forma- 
tion ;  trunk  twisting  and  exercises  in  which  the  arms  are  held  in 
or  pass  through  any  of  the  cross  positions  (side  horizontal,  bent 


38 

or  straight)  are  best  observed  from  one  end  of  the  class  when  in 
flank  formation. 

Finally,  as  has  already  been  suggested,  the  mental  effect  on 
the  pupils  of  seeing  a  large  part  of  the  class  doing  exercises  in 
unison  is  worth  considering,  and  the  choice  of  formation  may  at 
times  be  determined  on  this  ground.  In  this  sense  appearances 
count.  Then,  too,  snap,  unison  and  steady  rhythm  are  most 
easily  obtained  when  the  greatest  number  can  see  the  greatest 
number.  This  is  usually  in  the  flank  formation.  Sometimes 
all  these  considerations  coincide  and  all  are  met  better  by  one 
formation  than  by  any  other.  At  other  times  they  conflict,  in 
which  case  the  most  important  consideration  will  determine  the 
choice.  This  is  usually  a  matter  of  judgment  and  experience. 

2.     GYMNASTIC  COMMANDS. 

The  words  of  command  are  essentially  signals,  descriptive  •  or 
not,  as  the  case  may  be.  They  are  used  in  class-teaching  primarily 
to  insure  unison  and  uniformity  of  movement,  as  well  as  to  train 
quickness  of  response.  Their  purpose  and  use  are  in  all  respects 
similar  to  the  familiar  device  for  starting  a  number  of  individuals 
in  a  race:  "On  the  marks!"  "Get  set!"  "Go!"  Or  they  may 
be  likened  to  the  preliminary  raising  of  the  baton  or  arms,  and 
the  final  arm,  head  and  body  movements  of  the  leader  which 
start  the  playing  of  an  orchestra.  As  signals  for  starting  and 
stopping  movements  the  use  of  the  commands  is  largely  a  tech- 
nical matter,  which  anyone  may  learn  by  practice.  But  aside 
from  this,  the  commands  constitute  one  of  the  channels  through 
which  the  teacher's  personality,  as  well  as  his  ideas  and  ideals 
about  the  work,  find  expression.  For  after  their  proper  use,  tech- 
nically, has  been  acquired  and  become  automatic,  they  may  yet  be 
varied  in  their  suggestive  quality,  their  intonation,  intensity,  etc., 
so  as  to  have  a  marked  influence  on  the  class  and  the  quality  of  the 
work.  They  may  stimulate'  or  deaden,  quicken  or  slow  down ;  in 
short,  they  may,  and  generally  do,  reflect  the  teacher's  mental  and 
bodily  state  very  accurately. 

Essential  -features  of  commands.  Generally  speaking,  any 
agreed-upon  device  may  serve  the  main  purpose  of  a  command. 
It  may  be  a  noise  made  in  any  way,  such  as  tapping  the  floor 
with  a  stick,  or  clapping  the  hands ;  or  a  gesture ;  or  a  preliminary 
chord  on  the  piano,  followed  by  a  sharp  movement  of  the 
teacher's  head,  arms  or  whole  body;  or  a  warning  word,  such 
as  "All  ready!"  and  then  a  more  or  less  exaggerated  movement 
by  the  teacher,  which  becomes  the  first  part  of  the  gymnastic 
exercise.  Such  devices,  and  especially  the  two  last  mentioned, 


GYMNASTIC  COM M. -1. \ OS  39 

are  by  no  means  uncommon.  They  are  often  used  when  the 
work  is  entirely  rhythmical,  "oscillatory,"  or  approaching  the 
dancing  type.  With  a  little  practice  a  class  may  learn  to  begin 
an  exercise  in  this  way  with  a  fair  degree  of  unison.  Often, 
however,  there  is  apt  to  be  some  hesitation,  and  many  pupils 
do  not  "get  under  way"  until  the  first  or  second  repetition  of 
the  movement.  With  these  methods  of  starting,  the  movement 
is  usually  discontinued,  with  or  without  any  special  signal, 
when  a  certain  number  of  repetitions  have  been  made,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  count  or  by  the  music. 

Even  in  such  rhythmical  exercises,  however,  it  will  be  of 
advantage  to  start  and  stop  each  movement  by  a  proper  com- 
mand. This  may  be  of  the  simplest  character,  so  long  as  it 
embodies  the  main  features  of  all  commands,  namely,  a  prelimi- 
nary, descriptive  or  warning  part,  a  pause,  and  a  final,  execution- 
ary  part.  The  preparatory  part  states  or  reminds  briefly  what  is 
to  be  done,  and  with  the  following  pause  tends  to  focus  attention 
and  give  every  one  an  opportunity  to  get  ready  for  instant  action. 
The  final  part  is  the  real  signal  to  go  ahead.  On  the  proper  use 
and  relation  of  these  parts  of  the  command — as  regards  distinct- 
ness, intensity,  pitch,  intonation,  inflection  and  duration — depend, 
more  than  on  anything  else,  the  degree  of  unison,  snap  and  preci- 
sion of  the  movement.  These  details  will  be  discussed  later. 

Different  kinds  of  commands.  For  rhythmical  exercises  the 
name  of  the  movement,  if  sufficiently  brief  and  expressive,  may 
serve  as  the  preparatory  part  of  the  command.  When  a  de- 
scriptive term  for  a  complex,  compound  movement  is  lacking, 
or  would  be  too  cumbersome  to  use  as  a  part  of  a  command, 
some  such  warning  as  "Ready,"  or  "All  together,"  or  "To  the 
left,"  following  a  description  and  demonstration  of  the  move- 
ment, answers  the  purpose  very  well.  Such  a  warning  may  also 
be  used  in  conjunction  with  a  descriptive  term  in  order  to  make 
sure  of  the  preparedness  of  every  one.  After  a  sufficient  pause 
the  final  part  of  the  command  is  then  given  by  the  sharp  enuncia- 
tion of  some  such  word  as  "Begin!"  "Start!"  "Go!"  or  "March!" 
Having  made  a  satisfactory  start  and  a  sufficient  number  of 
repetitions,  the  exercise  is  discontinued  by  some  such  command 
as  "Stop!"  "And  Stop!"  "Hold!"  "Halt!"  or  "Class,  Halt!"  The 
choice  will  be  determined  partly  by  taste,  partly  by  the  style  of 
the  work,  or  by  the  character  of  the  particular  movement.  (See 
section  on  the  technique  of  using  commands.) 

When  exercises  are  done  singly  on  command,  whether  such 
exercises  be  simple  or  combined  movements,  followed  by  return 
to  the  starting  position,  or  parts  of  compound  movements,  the 
commands  may  be  made  in  two  ways. 


40  UVMNASTIC  TEACHING 

1.  A  descriptive  command  with  the  verb  in   the  imperative 
for  each  movement  or  part,  using  the  name  of  the  movement 
as  a  basis.    The  words  of  the  descriptive  term  are  slightly  modi- 
fied and  their  order  changed.     The  noun  and  adverb  are  put 
first,  serving  as  the  preparatory  command,  while  the  imperative 
verb  is  put  last,  as  the  command  of  execution.     For  example, 
the  command   for  the  simple  movement  "Forward  bending  of 
trunk"  would  be  "Trunk  forward — bend!"     This  would  neces- 
sitate a  command  for  the  return  to  the  starting  position.     In  the 
example  given  this  might  be  "Trunk — raise!" 

For  a  combined  movement,  such  as  "Arm  bending  with  alter- 
nate foot  placing  forward,"  the  command  would  be  "Arms  bend 
and  left  (right)  foot  forward — place!"  The  simplest  command 
for  the  return  movement,  in  this  case,  would  be  "Position!" 

As  an  example  of  making  the  commands  for  the  parts  of  a 
compound  movement  from  its  name,  take  the  movement  "Heel 
raising  and  knee  bending."  Here  the  commands  would  be 
"Heels— raise!"  "Knees— bend!"  "Knees— stretch !"  "Heels— 
sink!" 

When  the  starting  position  is  other  than  the  fundamental  posi- 
tion, the  command  for  the  movement  by  which  this  derived  posi- 
tion is  reached  should  always  be  of  this  kind.  For  example,  if  a 
movement  such  as  "Side  bending  of  trunk"  is  to  be  done  repeat- 
edly from  a  starting  position  with  the  hands  behind  the  neck 
and  feet  apart,  the  command  for  the  latter  would  be  "Hands 
on  neck  and  feet  sideways — place!"  When  the  real  movement 
(side  bending)  has  been  repeated  a  sufficient  number  of  times, 
the  return  to  the  fundamental  position  is  most  easily  accom- 
plished by  the  command  "Position!" 

2.  Another  way  to  make  the  command  is  to  use  the  descriptive 
(or  empirical)    term  serving  as  the  name  of  the  movement — 
usually  consisting  of  a  noun,  the  present  participle  of  a  verb,  and 
an  adverb  for  each  element  of  the  movement — as  the  preparatory 
command    for  the  movement  as  a   whole,   while   the   numerals 
are  used  as  executionary  commands  for  the  respective  parts.    The 
return  to  the  starting  position,  in  reverse  order,  is  implied.    Thus, 
in  the  examples  given  above,  the  commands  would  be  "Forward 
bending  of  trunk — One! — Two!"  and   "Heel   raising  and   knee 
bending! — One! — Two! — Three! — Four!" 

When  to  use  these  methods,  respectively.  For  simple  or 
compound  movements,  in  which  only  one  part  of  the  body  moves 
at  a  time,  either  of  these  methods  may  be  used  with  equal 
advantage.  The  second  method  is  perhaps  the  safer,  or  at  least 
the  more  readily  available  in  case  of  uncertainty.  When  it  is 
desired  to  make  many  repetitions  on  command  the  second  is  by 
far  the  more  suitable,  as  the  frequent  repetitions  of  descriptive 


GYMNASTIC  COMMANDS  41 

terms  are  superfluous  and  take  too  much  time.  In  such  cases  it 
may  be  of  advantage  to  use  the  descriptive  command  with  the 
verb  in  the  imperative  the  first  time,  then  for  the  repetitions 
some  such  word  as  "Repeat,"  or  "Again,"  or  "Once  more"  as 
preparatory  command,  and  the  numerals  as  final  commands. 

In  combined  movements — that  is,  movements  in  which  two  or 
more  parts  of  the  body  move  simultaneously — the  second  method 
is  often  the  more  suitable,  as  the  first  would  be  too  cumbersome. 
Take  for  example  such  a  movement  as  "Arm  flinging  sideways 
with  knee  bending."  Using  that  term  as  the  preparatory  com- 
mand and  "One! — Two!"  as  the  final  commands  for  "going" 
and  "returning,"  respectively,  is  simpler  and  is  more  readily 
spoken  than  such  a  clumsy  combination  as  "Arm  sideways  fling 
and  knees — bend!"  followed  by  an  even  more  cumbersome  and 
therefore  embarrassing  combination  of  descriptive  commands  to 
get  the  class  back  to  the  fundamental  position. 

The  above  applies  with  even  greater  force  to  combined,  com- 
pound movements,  especially  when  of  a  fairly  complex  charac- 
ter, such,  for  example,  as  "Arm  bending  with  side  lunge,  then 
arm  stretching  sideways  with  side  bending  of  trunk."  In  such 
a  case  the  best  way  is  to  demonstrate  the  movement  carefully, 
naming  each  part  while  showing  it,  then  command  "Attention !" 
(if  the  class  has  been  standing  at  ease)  "All  ready,  left — One! — 
Two! — Three! — Four!"  Again,  in  many  of  these  combined, 
compound  movements  a  combination  of  the  two  methods  of 
making  the  commands  may  be  advantageous.  For  example  in 
such  a  movement  as  "Arm  flinging  sideways-upward  with  alter- 
nate foot  placing  forward  and  heel  raising,"  there  is  at  least  a 
fair  choice  between  the  second  method  throughout,  and  the  fol- 
lowing combination  of  the  two  methods:  "Arm  sideways  fling 
and  left  foot  forward — place!"  "Arm  flinging  upward  with  heel 
raising—  One!  (Return) — Two!"  "Position!"  Then:  "Repeat  to 
right  (on  four  counts) — One! — Two! — Three! — Four!"  Such  a 
combination  of  methods  is  especially  useful  when  the  class  is 
familiar  with  the  elements  of  the  compound  movement,  but  when 
the  descriptive  term  for  it  would  be  too  lengthy  to  be  readily 
apprehended  or  remembered.  By  using  the  above  combination 
of  methods  in  such  movements,  detailed  demonstration  as  well 
as  too  lengthy  descriptive  terms  may  be  avoided,  thus  saving 
time  and  insuring  continuity  of  work  and  attention. 

General  factors  in  the  use  of  commands.  The  effectiveness 
of  the  commands  in  eliciting  promptness  and  unison  of  response, 
vigor  and  precision  of  execution  depends  on  many  factors. 
Foremost  of  these  are  the  kind  of  personality  of  which  they 
are  an  expression  and  the  strength  of  the  teacher's  hold  on  the 


42  (,y.MNASTIC  TEACH1.\\; 

class — his  "power  of  command."  While  a  teacher  with  a  strong 
personality  may  get  along  tolerably  well  in  spite  of  faulty  or 
clumsy  technique,  a  skillful  use  of  technical  devices  will 
strengthen  his  power  and  control,  and  will  make  the  work  more 
effective  as  well  as  more  interesting.  The  simplicity,  judicious 
use  and  proper  delivery  of  the  commands  contribute  materially 
to  the  smooth  progress,  the  continuity  and  the  life  of  the  lesson. 

Simplicity  and  correct  language.  Try  as  far  as  possible  to 
select  simple,  self-explanatory  commands.  Avoid  too  technical 
terms,  or  words  and  phrasings  which  are  bizarre  and  out  of  keep- 
ing with  ordinary,  correct  use  of  language.  Such  terms  attract 
too  much  attention  to  themselves  (or  to  the  teacher),  and  too 
little  to  what  they  stand  for.  They  may  require  considerable 
mental  effort  to  commit  to  memory  and  therefore  need  frequent 
explanation.  This  means  divided  attention  on  the  part  of  the 
class,  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  talking  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  and  loss  of  time  for  both. 

Stick  to  agreements.  All  commands,  or  rather  the  meanings 
attached  to  them,  are  in  the  nature  of  agreements.  Therefore 
it  behooves  the  teacher  to  stick  to  a  given  usage,  once  agreed 
upon.  If  he  thinks  he  can  improve  on  any  command  previously 
used,  or  deems  a  change  desirable  for  any  reason,  he  should  make 
an  explicit  statement  to  that  effect — make  another  agreement 
superseding  the  old — and  stick  to  the  new  usage.  Nothing  is 
more  puzzling  or  harassing  to  a  class  than  varied  and  incon- 
sistent use  of  commands  by  the  teacher;  and  nothing  could  be 
more  unfair  than  reproaching  a  class  for  failure  to  execute  move- 
ments properly,  when  such  failure  is  obviously  due  to  the  teach- 
er's bungling  or  confusion  of  commands. 

Voice  and  enunciation.  Make  the  commands  distinct  and 
clear,  and  in  a  voice  sufficiently  loud  to  be  easily  heard  by  those 
farthest  away  (if  attentive).  While  excessive  loudness  is  not 
advantageous,  the  main  efforts  of  the  pupils  should  be  spent  in 
doing  the  work,  not  in  trying  to  hear  and  understand  the  com- 
mands. It  is  well  to  cultivate  the  power  to  make  people  listen, 
rather  than  to  make  them  hear ;  but  that  refers  more  to  secur- 
ing their  attention  by  well  modulated  use  of  the  voice  (as  well 
as  other  means),  than  trying  to  overcome  their  inattention  by 
loud  shouting.  Here,  as  always,  superlativeness  and  excess  in- 
dicate lack  of  adaptation  to  purpose,  and  are  therefore  weaken- 
ing. Let  the  pupils  feel  that  the  teacher  has  a  good  deal  more 
voice  power  than  he  is  using — that  he  has  abundant  reserve, 
should  occasion  demand  it. 

Instead  of  depending  exclusively  on  volume  and  intensity  of 
sound  strive  for  more  perfect  enunciation,  for  a  better  "plac- 


GYMNASTIC  COMMANDS  43 

ing"  of  the  voice,  as  the  voice  teachers  express  it.  This  is 
attainable,  to  some  degree  at  least,  even  without  special  train- 
ing, if  the  teacher  will  cultivate  the  habit  of  observing  himself 
in  a  detached  way;  then  practice  speaking  the  difficult  or  in- 
effective words  and  sounds  in  a  way  to  make  them  carry  farther. 

Do  not  overlook  any  little  thing  that  may  help  in  attaining 
greater  carrying  power  of  the  voice.  Be  sure  to  face  the  class 
and  hold  the  head  high  when  delivering  the  command.  Find  the 
"focal"  points  in  the  various  formations,  from  which  every  mem- 
ber of  the  class  can  be  most  easily  reached.  With  large  classes, 
and  in  gymnasia  with  poor  acoustic  properties,  all  these  things 
are  of  considerable  importance,  not  only  in  making  commands 
and  instructions  effective  and  understood,  but  in  conserving  the 
vitality  or  at  least  the  voice  of  the  teacher. 

Commands  following  each  other  too  rapidly.  As  a  rule  do  not 
give  a  command  before  the  next  preceding  has  been  executed 
and  the  position  held  for  a  moment,  unless  there  are  good  and 
sufficient  reasons  for  so  doing.  Such  may  be  the  case,  for  exam- 
ple, in  marching.  When  desiring  to  make  rapid  and  successive 
changes  of  direction  or  formation,  during  the  march,  it  is  often 
necessary  to  begin  a  new  command  while  a  previous  one  is  in 
process  of  execution. 

The  mistake  of  giving  commands  too  rapidly  is  sometimes 
made  in  the  effort  to  stihiulate  a  class  to  quick  response  and 
"snappy"  execution.  It  is  then  a  case  of  a  good  thing  carried 
to  excess.  A  rapid  change  of  movement  or  position  does 
stimulate  the  attention  and  tends  to  produce  alacrity  and  speed. 
But  if  the  changes  are  so  rapid  that  many  pupils  cannot  follow, 
or  can  only  half  do  the  movements,  the  net  result  is  confusion  and 
slovenly  work.  If  this  is  allowed  to  pass  it  is  equivalent  to  ac- 
ceptance of  poor  response  from  the  class  as  a  whole.  The 
effectiveness  of  the  commands  is  weakened  rather  than  strength- 
ened, and  this  will  react  unfavorably  on  the  general  quality  of 
the  work  as  well  as  on  the  teacher's  hold  on  the  class.  The 
attention  is  not  stimulated.  It  may  even  be  dispersed,  its  object 
varying  so  rapidly  that  a  proper  focusing  never  has  a  chance 
to  occur. 

Recalling  movement  already  under  way.  In  complex  serial 
movements  a  recall  may  sometimes  be  necessary  before  the  first 
cycle  of  the  movement  has  been  completed.  This  often  happens 
even  in  comparatively  simple  movements  when  "trying"  a  class 
and  finding  that  the  majority  do  not  understand  what  is  wanted, 
or  are  unable  to  do  the  movement  properly.  Under  such  circum- 
stances it  may  be  wise  to  command  "Stop!"  or  "Position!"  (or 
both)  sharply.  Or  it  may  be  as  well  to  wait  until  the  failure 
is  complete,  in  order  to  impress  the  class,  and  then  say,  in- 


44  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

formally,  "Stop!  Come  back!"  Give  the  class  "In  place  rest," 
then  make  the  necessary  explanations  and  start  all  over  again, 
perhaps  in  a  different  way  (such  as  doing  each  part  separately, 
or  even  giving  another  movement). 

A  similar  procedure  might  also  be  tried  when  the  class  fails 
to  execute  the  movement  because  of  inattention  or  mischievous- 
ness.  In  that  case  the  explanations  or  re-demonstrations  should 
be  replaced  by  reprimand  of  the  guilty  pupils.  Recall  should 
also  be  made  promptly  when  failure  and  confusion  are  due  to  a 
faulty  or  wrong  command.  This  may  happen  to  any  teacher 
occasionally  and  should  always  be  acknowledged. 

Superfluous  commands.  The  mistake  is  not  infrequently  made 
of  giving  two  executionary  commands  for  one  movement.  This 
is  most  likely  to  occur  when  the  parts  of  a  compound  move- 
ment are  given  singly,  as  for  example  "Left  — face!  One!  Two!" 
(when  it  is  desired  to  have  the  class  hold  the  position  reached 
by  the  first  part  of  the  facing).  Here,  as  in  many  similar  move- 
ments, the  command  for  the  complete  movement  is  of  course 
sufficient  for,  and  by  agreement  applies  only  to,  the  first  part. 
A  class  can  be  readily  made  to  understand  that.  It  is  the  fear 
that  the  class  will  not  stop  after  the  first  part  has  been  executed, 
or  the  feeling  that  it  is  illogical  to  say  "Two !"  without  previously 
having  said  "One !"  that  leads  inexperienced  teachers  to  make  this 
mistake.  Sometimes  this  fault  does  not  produce  the  failure  of 
unison  in  the  response  that  might  be  expected.  This  is  because 
the  imperative  of  the  verb — the  first  executionary  command — is 
not  preceded  by  a  pause  and  is  not  pronounced  with  the  sharp- 
ness and  inflection  which  should  characterize  the  final  command, 
while  the  numeral  serving  as  the  real  final  command  is  delivered 
with  proper  emphasis  and  intonation.  The  imperative  verb  is 
then  not  truly  an  executionary,  but  rather  a  part  of  the  prepara- 
tory command.  This  redeems  the  inconsistency  to  a  great  extent, 
and  the  chief  criticism  in  that  case  is  on  incorrect  use  of  language. 
The  present  participle  of  the  verb  would  be  more  logical.  More 
often,  however,  there  is  some  suggestion  of  the  final  command 
when  the  imperative  of  the  verb  is  used,  and  this  generally 
"draws"  a  number  of  the  pupils  while  others  wait  for  the  "One !" 
Unison  and  precision  of  response  are  of  course  out  of  the  ques- 
tion under  such  circumstances.  When  this  mistake  habitually 
occurs  in  giving  parts  of  compound  movements  singly  on  com- 
mand, the  principal  object — that  of  drilling  the  class  in  quick 
and  accurate  response — is  defeated,  and  the  quality  of  the  work, 
generally,  is  lowered.  While  a  class  may,  after  a  time,  be  trained 
to  ignore  the  first  and  respond  only  to  the  second,  the  habit  of 
giving  double  commands  cannot  fail  to  increase  the  teacher's 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  COMMANDS  45 

difficulties  and  to  give  at  least  some  of  the  brighter  pupils  a  feel- 
ing that  something  is  wrong  with  the  method  of  teaching.  In 
any  case  duplicating  commands  is  to  be  deprecated  on  grounds 
of  superfluity  and  illogical  use  of  language. 

3.     THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  COMMANDS. 

The  preparatory  part  of  the  command,  as  already  stated,  serves 
two  purposes.  One  is  to  express  briefly  and  concisely  what  is  to 
be  done.  The  other  is  to  focus  attention,  to  produce  a  mental 
and  bodily  state  of  readiness  for  instant  action.  Both  of  these 
purposes  are  accomplished  by  using  the  name  of  the  exercise,  if 
not  too  long,  as  the  preparatory  command ;  by  speaking  it  in  a 
clear,  even  tone  of  voice,  pitched  relatively  low,  or  with  only  a 
slightly  rising  or  falling  inflection ;  by  taking  the  utmost  pains 
to  enunciate  every  word  distinctly ;  by  using  enough  volume  and 
intensity  of  sound  to  reach  those  farthest  away.  Preferably  the 
teacher  should  face  the  class. 

When  the  exercise  is  sufficiently  familiar  to  the  class  to  make 
a  detailed  demonstration  and  explanation  unnecessary,  it  is  well 
to  accompany  the  preparatory  command  by  a  "cue."  This  con- 
sists of  a  rapid,  more  or  less  detailed  execution  of  the  movement 
by  the  teacher  while  naming  it.  It  may  be  a  mere  suggestion  of 
the  main  features  of  the  exercise,  serving  as  a  reminder ;  or  it 
may  be  done  with  full  vigor,  accurate  detail  and  exact  rhythm, 
according  to  the  requirements  of  the  occasion.  In  this  way  much 
time  may  be  saved  and  the  teacher  may  avoid  too  frequent  breaks 
in  the  continuity  of  the  work  occasioned  by  giving  the  class  "In 
place  rest,"  while  explaining  and  demonstrating  the  exercise. 

On  the  other  hand,  too  lengthy  preparatory  commands  should 
be  avoided.  Whenever  possible,  let  them  be  suggestive  rather 
than  too  descriptive.  While  a  warning  or  stimulating  admonition 
at  times  may  be  of  advantage  as  a  part  of  the  preparatory  com- 
mand, it  is  not  wise  to  do  this  too  much,  or  too  frequently. 
When  used  habitually  and  in  a  routine  way  this  device  loses  its 
force.  Besides,  the  class  feels  that  the  teacher  does  not  have 
sufficient  confidence  in  its  ability  and  good  intention. 

An  excessively  lengthy  preparatory  command  for  compound, 
combined  movements,  especially  when  very  complex,  may  be 
avoided  in  two  ways:  1.  Either  give  each  part  of  the  compound 
movement  separately  the  first  time,  using  a  combination  of  the 
two  methods  of  forming  the  command,  as  suggested  in  a  previous 
section,  followed  by,  "Repeat — One! — Two! — Three! — Four!" 
Then  use  some  such  term  as  "Continue — "or  "Keep  it  going — "  or 
"In  rhythm — "  or  "In  Series — "  as  preparatory  command,  and 


46  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

"Begin!"  or  "Start!"  or  "Go!"  as  final  command  for  further 
rhythmic  repetitions.  2.  Or  give  the  class  "In  place  rest," 
demonstrate  the  complete  exercise,  then  command  ".•Ittcntion!" 
"All  ready — One!"  " — Two!"  etc.  In  this  way  the  pupils  are 
not  held  immobile  in  a  state  of  high  tension  too  long  on  the  one 
hand,  and  on  the  other  there  is  less  opportunity  for  a  slackening 
of  the  fundamental  position  with  a  consequent  loss  of  readiness 
and  a  failure  of  prompt  response.  But  a  rational  progression  will 
obviate  the  necessity  for  too  frequent  interruptions  of  this  kind 
and  will  enable  the  teacher  to  use  the  first  method  the  greater 
part  of  the  time.  For  if  the  majority  of  the  exercises  in  the 
lesson  consist  of  new  combinations  of  movements  with  which 
the  class  is  familiar,  the  more  deliberate  method  of  demonstra- 
tion and  explanation  with  the  class  in  a  relaxed  position  may  be 
reserved  for  new  types,  or  for  the  more  difficult  combinations  of 
known  elements. 

The  pause  between  the  preparatory  and  final  command  is  per- 
haps the  most  important  single  factor  in  insuring  unison  of  re- 
sponse. The  sudden  cessation  of  speaking,  the  following  com- 
plete silence  and  stillness  have  the  effect  of  all  sharp  contrasts — 
of  attracting  and  focusing  attention.  The  pause  makes  possible 
and  brings  about  that  state  of  readiness  and  high  tension  so 
necessary  for  vigorous  and  united  action. 

The  duration  of  the  pause  should  correspond  to  the  time  needed 
by  the  pupils  to  comprehend  what  is  required  of  them  and  enable 
them  to  gather  themselves  together  for  the  proper  effort.  The 
more  complex  and  difficult  the  movement,  or  the  rhythm,  the 
longer  should  be  the  pause.  In  this  short  period  of  stillness  the 
teacher,  by  a  sweeping  glance,  should  try  to  ascertain  if  all  under- 
stand and  are  ready.  Such  a  rapid  survey  of  the  class  during 
the  pause  may  save  the  necessity  of  a  recall  (after  the  movement 
has  begun)  because  of  partial  or  entire  lack  of  unison  and  poor 
execution.  The  teacher  may  discover  inattentive  pupils  and  by 
word  or  gesture  bring  them  to  attention.  Or  the  expression  in 
the  pupils'  faces  may  warn  him  that  they  do  not  feel  sure  of 
themselves,  that  they  do  not  understand  what  they  are  expected 
to  do.  This  usually  means  that  the  explanations,  etc.,  have  been 
inadequate  and  that  it  is  necessary  to  begin  all  over  again.  The 
movement  may  then  be  countermanded,  in  an  informal  way, 
before  the  final  command  has  been  given,  and  the  confusion  en- 
tailed by  a  total  failure  of  execution  may  be  averted. 

To  make  a  proper  pause  between  the  two  parts  of  the  com- 
mand, although  apparently  such  a  simple  matter,  is  one  of  the 
hardest  things  for  many  young  teachers  to  learn,  or  to  stick  to 
after  learning.  To  acquire  the  habit,  it  may  be  helpful,  in  the 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  COMMANDS  47 

beginning,  to  think  the  word  "pause,"  or  even  to  speak  it  in- 
audibly,  before  giving  the  final  part  of  the  command. 

The  tendency  of  every  class  to  anticipate  the  command,  to 
make  a  "false  start,"  often  induces  the  unwary  teacher  to  shorten 
the  pause,  or  to  neglect  it  altogether,  in  an  unconscious  effort  to 
forestall  a  failure  of  unison.  Hurried  commands,  with  insuffi- 
cient pause,  in  turn  increase  the  tendency  to  anticipation.  This 
is  sometimes  an  expression  of  eagerness  and  alacrity  on  the  part 
of  the  pupils.  More  often,  perhaps,  it  is  due  to  inability  or  dis- 
inclination to  wait  until  the  proper  signal  has  been  given.  This 
requires  control,  power  of  inhibition  and  considerable  effort  of 
mind  and  body.  It  is  the  line  of  greatest  resistance.  In  any  case 
such-  anticipation  is  fatal  to  unison  and  quick  response  from  the 
class  as  a  whole.  The  first  impulse  of  the  teacher  (as  of  a 
starter  in  a  race)  is  to  try  to  save  the  situation  by  getting  ahead 
of  those  who  show  signs  of  making  a  false  start.  But  hurrying 
the  command  by  shortening  the  pause  is  rarely  effective  in  pro- 
ducing unison  of  response,  as  many  of  the  pupils  are  caught  un- 
prepared. The  next  time  these  pupils  will  anticipate  the  com- 
mand and  the  unison  will  be  still  more  impaired. 

This  reaction  of  teacher  and  class  on  each  other  is  particularly 
apt  to  occur  when  single  movements  on  command  are  repeated 
many  times,  and  the  intervals  between  the  commands  are  too 
uniform  as  well  as  too  short.  It  not  infrequently  happens  in 
such  cases  that  the  class  begins  doing  an  exercise  on  command 
and  after  a  few  repetitions  is  doing  it  rhythmically.  At  first  the 
teacher  makes  desperate  efforts  to  keep  ahead  of  the  class  by 
hastening  the  command,  but  the  ultimate  "catching  up"  is  in- 
evitable. 

If  the  descriptive  command  with  the  imperative  of  the  verb  is 
used,  the  only  thing  to  do  to  prevent  this  "sliding"  into  rhythmical 
movement  with  its  attendant  lack  of  unison  is  to  stop  and  allow 
the  class  to  make  one  false  start ;  then  recall  the  movement  in  an 
informal  way  and  admonish  the  class  to  wait  for  the  command. 
After  that  be  more  careful  to  have  a  sufficiently  long  and  varied 
pause  between  the  two  parts  of  the  command. 

If  the  numerals  are  used  as  commands  the  same  method  may 
be  employed  to  head  off  the  tendency  of  a  movement  given  on 
command  to  become  rhythmical.  Often,  however,  things  have 
gone  too  far  before  the  teacher  fully  realizes  the  situation.  If 
he  then  stops  giving  the  command  the  class  will  continue  in  a 
scattered  way  for  some  time.  Reproach  for  not  waiting  for  the 
command  is  then  not  only  inconsistent  but  unjust.  Under  such 
circumstances  it  would  be  wiser  to  accept  the  situation,  frankly 
allow  the  movement  to  become  continuous  and  try  to  steady  the 
rhythm.  The  numerals  are  then  no  longer  commands,  but  simply 


48  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

aid  in  keeping  the  time  and  serve  as  a  vehicle  for  stimulation. 
They  correspond  to  the  rhythmical  movements  of  the  baton,  arms 
and  head  of  the  leader  in  guiding  the  playing  of  an  orchestra, 
and  are  spoken  at  the  end  of  the  movement,  instead  of  preceding  it, 
as  is  the  case  when  they  are  used  as  commands.  To  discontinue 
such  a  rhythmical  gymnastic  movement  a  proper  command  is 
necessary.  The  mere  cessation  of  counting  will  not  stop  it. 

The  tendency  to  anticipation  by  the  class  is  greatly  increased 
if  the  teacher  is  himself  guilty  of  the  same  offense  while  doing 
the  movement  with  the  class.  In  extreme  cases  of  this  kind  the 
class  is  really  not  doing  the  movement  in  response  to  the  com- 
mand, but  is  simply  following  the  movements  of  the  teacher  by 
direct  imitation.  There  is  then  usually,  very  imperfect  execution 
and  entire  lack  of  unison  until  the  movement  has  gradually  be- 
come rhythmical.  Such  a  confusion  of  methods  is  to  be  depre- 
cated, even  though  a  class  may  become  accustomed  to  it  after  a 
while.  It  is  illogical  and  conducive  to  poor  quality  of  work. 
If  the  teacher  finds  it  difficult  to  time  his  own  movements  prop- 
erly, it  is  better  to  refrain  altogether  from  participation  in  the 
work,  until  he  has  learned  by  practice  how  to  do  it  in  a  way  to 
help  the  class  rather  than  the  reverse. 

The  duration  of  the  pause  may  be  made  excessively  long. 
This  entails  an  unnecessary  strain  on  the  attention — keeps  the 
class  "on  edge"  too  long  and  makes  the  purely  mental  part  of 
the  work  too  prominent  and  severe.  Like  every  other  good  prin- 
ciple, this  one  may  be  unduly  emphasized  to  the  detriment  of  the 
work  and  the  weakening  of  the  teacher.  If  the  pause  is  too  long 
the  attention  is  apt  to  relax  after  a  while.  This  is  sometimes  seen 
in  marching.  When  the  class  is  allowed  to  take  several  steps 
before  the  final  command  is  given  the  result  is  often  failure  of 
execution.  With  a  well-trained  class  the  pause  in  the  different 
types  of  movement  comes  to  be  of  a  customary  length,  with  al- 
ways enough  variation  and  uncertainty  to  produce  zest  and  alert- 
ness, but  without  annoyance. 

The  only  commands  in  which  a  pause  may  be  dispensed  with 
are  "Right  dress!"  "Count  twos  (threes,  etc.)  !"  and  "Class 
halt!"  In  the  first  a  pause  would  be  desirable,  but  by  agreement 
with  the  class  may  be  left  out  in  order  to  distinguish  this  com- 
mand from  "Right — face!"  and  so  save  confusion.  A  pause  is 
unnecessary  in  any  command  for  counting  off,  as  this  applies 
only  to  one  individual,  and  there  is  then  no  question  of  unison. 
In  "Class  halt!"  the  word  "class"  is  somewhat  drawn  out  during 
one  movement  and  the  "halt!"  may  be  given  on  the  next.  As  it 
is  customary  to  do  two  movements  before  the  class  comes  to  a 
standstill,  there  is  ample  time  to  check  momentum  in  marching 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  COMMANDS  49 

and  recoil  in  such  movements  as  "alternate  knee-upward  bend- 
ing" or  "jumping  on  toes." 

The  final  part  of  the  command  is  the  signal  for  the  execution  of 
the  movement.  It  is  usually  and  preferably  only  one  syllable. 
It  varies  in  quality,  pitch  and  inflection  of  voice,  in  sharpness  and 
intensity  of  sound  according  to  the  character  of  the  movement  to 
be  done.  Thus  a  quick  movement  requires  a  short,  sharp,  snappy 
executionary  command,  usually — though  not  always — pitched 
higher  than  the  preparatory  command,  and  with  a  rising  inflection. 
It  is  of  a  somewhat  explosive  character,  the  effect  of  sudden  con- 
traction of  the  abdominal  muscles.  Often  the  aspirate  sound  of 
the  letter  "h"  is  thus  produced,  as  in  "place"  and  "stretch."  These, 
when  short  and  sharp,  are  pronounced  as  if  they  were  spelled 
"pl'hace"  and  "str'hetch."  A  slow  movement,  on  the  other  hand, 
requires  a  more  drawn  out  executionary  command,  usually  pitched 
lower  than  the  preparatory  command,  and  with  a  falling  inflection. 

While  it  is  true  that  high  pitch  and  rising  inflection  are  suitable 
for  quick  movements,  and  low  pitch  or  falling  inflection  for 
slow  movements,  it  is  often  necessary  to  depart  from  this  rule 
in  order  to  avoid  too  much  sameness.  Thus,  when  giving 
the  parts  of  a  compound  movement  separately  on  command,  it 
is  wise  to  vary  the  pitch  or  inflection  of  successive  commands, 
even  though  all  the  parts  of  the  movement  are  of  equal  speed. 
For  example,  in  the  movement  "Heel  raising  and  knee  bending," 
done  slowly,  the  inflection  of  the  commands  for  the  parts  might 
with  advantage  be  as  follows:  "Heels — raise!"  (falling), 
"Knees — bend!"  (rising),  "Knees — stretch!"  (rising)  and 
"Heels — sink!"  (falling).  Or  the  first  and  third  might  be  given 
with  rising,  the  second  and  fourth  with  falling  inflection.  Simi- 
larly, if  the  movements  are  to  be  done  quickly,  the  successive 
commands  (in  this  case  the  numerals)  may  be  varied  in  pitch, 
although  collectively  they  are  pitched  higher  than  the  prepara- 
tory command.  For  example :  "Heel  raising  and  knee  bending — 
(falling  inflection)  "One!"  (short  and  sharp,  with  rising  inflec- 
tion), "Tivo!"  (somewhat  lower  pitch),  "Three!"  (rising  again), 
"Four!"  (falling).  There  are  unlimited  possibilities  for  varia- 
tion in  pitch  and  intonation  of  commands,  and  it  is  very  desirable 
that  this  be  kept  in  mind  whenever  it  is  necessary  to  give  a  series 
of  commands  in  rapid  succession.  Indeed,  the  proper  inflection 
and  constantly  varying  intonation  of  commands  are  as  much  of 
an  asset  in  teaching  gymnastics  as  is  a  well  modulated  and  vary- 
ing tone  of  voice  in  ordinary  conversation  or  in  public  speaking. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  imperative  of  the  verb  used  for 
the  final  command  is  suitable  only  for  a  quick,  or — more  often — 
a  slow  movement.  In  such  cases  another  word  must  be  substi- 
tuted, as  for  example,  "fling"  for  "raise"  in  straight  arm  move- 


50  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

ments.  Again,  the  method  of  using  the  name  of  the  movement 
for  the  preparatory  command  and  the  numerals  for  the  final 
commands  is  always  available.  The  numerals,  up  to  four,  are 
as  useful  in  this  respect  as  in  simplifying  lengthy  or  cumbersome 
commands  for  combined  movements.  As  an  example,  take  the 
movement  "Arm  bending  with  heel  raising."  If  the  movement 
were  to  be  slow,  it  might  be  possible  to  use  the  descriptive  com- 
mand with  the  verbs  in  the  imperative,  although  it  would  be  rather 
clumsy.  As  this  combined  movement  is  usually  done  quickly, 
however,  the  descriptive  command  with  the  imperative  verbs 
"bend!"  and  "raise!"  can  hardly  be  enunciated  in  a  way  to  sug- 
gest speed.  Here  the  other  method  is  not  only  simpler  but  more 
natural  and  infinitely  more  effective.  Compare  "Arms  bend  and 
heels — raise!"  (the  last  word  pronounced  with  short  vowel,  if 
that  were  possible,  and  with  rising  inflection)  ;  then  "Arms 
stretch  and  heels — sink!"  on  one  hand,  with  "Arm  bending  with 
heel  raising — One! — Two!"  on  the  other. 

When,  for  any  reason,  it  is  particularly  desirable  to  use  the 
descriptive  command  with  the  verb  in  the  imperative,  but  the 
sound  of  the  command  does  not  suggest  the  desired  speed  of  the 
movement,  then  it  is  necessary  to  accept  the  speed  suitable  to 
the  command  when  doing  the  movement  the  first  time.  For 
repetitions  the  numerals  may  be  used  as  final  commands  and  the 
speed  of  the  movement  made  whatever  the  teacher  wishes.  The 
movement  "Heel  raising  and  knee  bending"  may  again  serve  as 
an  example. 

The  only  difficulty  in  using  the  numerals  as  executionary  com- 
mands is  that  the  tendency  of  the  class  to  anticipate  is  greater 
and  more  difficult  to  check  than  when  the  other  form  of  command 
is  used.  This  has  already  been  discussed  and  shown  to  be  due 
to  an  insufficient  or  too  uniform  pause  between  the  commands. 
If  the  teacher  is  on  his  guard  against  this  fault,  and  against  the 
equally  common  mistake  of  anticipating  his  own  command  when 
doing  the  movements  with  the  class,  there  need  be  no  difficulty 
in  the  use  of  the  numerals.  One  other  point  might  be  mentioned 
in  this  connection.  When  making  many  repetitions  on  command 
(in  itself  an  undesirable  thirig)  and  using  the  numerals,  it  is 
better  not  to  "count  up,"  but  to  repeat  those  numerals  which  stand 
respectively  for  the  first,  second,  third  and  fourth  parts  of  the 
movement.  If  the  movement  consists  of  more  than  four  parts, 
the  corresponding  numerals  must  of  course  be  used.  But  for 
the  vast  majority  of  suitable  exercises  the  first  four  numerals 
are  all  that  is  necessary.  The  fact  that  they  are  all  of  one  syllable 
and  have  vowels  capable  of  being  pronounced  either  quickly  or 
slowly,  with  any  kind  of  inflection  or  intonation,  make  them 
peculiarly  adaptable  to  any  kind  of  movement.  This  is  not  true 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  COMMANDS  51 

of  most  of  the  numerals  above  four.  Besides,  counting  up  in- 
definitely has  a  stronger  tendency  to  produce  anticipation  and 
to  make  the  movement  rhythmical  than  any  other  way  of  giving 
commands.  Nor  has  it  any  special  merit  or  advantage,  except 
that  it  indicates  the  number  of  repetitions.  This  is  too  insignifi- 
cant a  consideration  to  have  any  weight  in  the  choice  of  method. 
The  use  of  the  numerals  as  a  device  for  marking  time  should 
be  clearly  distinguished  from  their  use  as  commands.  Simple 
as  this  distinction  is,  in  practice  confusion  in  the  two  ways  of 
using  the  numerals  is  not  at  all  uncommon.  It  is  partly  respon- 
sible for,  and  to  a  certain  extent  also  caused  by,  the  illogical  pro- 
cedure of  "sliding,"  by  gradual  steps,  from  doing  single  move- 
ments on  command  to  rhythmical,  continuous  movement.  The 
reverse  is  also  seen  occasionally.  In  trying  to  start  a  rhythmical 
movement  an  inexperienced  teacher  may  fail  to  do  so  for  two 
reasons.  Either  the  command  "Begin!"  has  been  delivered  in  an 
ineffective  manner  or  not  given  at  all;  or  the  numerals,  intended 
in  this  case  as  time-markers,  are  pronounced  too  sharply,  with 
too  much  inflection  and  not  exactly,  on  time.  This  causes  many 
of  the  pupils  to  hesitate  at  the  next  movement,  to  wait  for  the 
next  count,  unconsciously  mistaking  the  counts  for  commands. 
The  unison  is  thus  broken  up,  and  if  the  teacher  stops  counting 
the  class  stops  working.  To  all  intents  and  purposes  the  class 
is  doing  each  single  movement  on  command,  even  though  it  be 
in  a  ragged  manner;  while  the  teacher  is  under  the  impression 
that  a  rhythmical  movement  is  in  progress  and  is  puzzled  why 
he  cannot  get  it  under  way.  Here,  as  in  the  opposite  case  (a 
class  going  ahead  of  the  command  and  "sliding"  into  a  ragged 
rhythmical  movement),  it  is  best  to  stop.  In  this  case  it  would 
be  even  more  unjust  than  in  the  other  to  expostulate  with  the 
class.  It  would  perhaps  be  better  for  the  teacher  to  admit  being 
at  fault.  In  any  case,  it  behooves  him  not  to  make  the  same  mis- 
take again.  Instead,  he  should  try  to  make  the  command 
"Begin!"  sharp  and  ringing,  guard  against  anticipating  the  com- 
mand in  his  own  movement,  make  his  counts  in  an  even  tone, 
in  a  slightly  lower  pitch  and  with  less  sharpness  than  the  word 
"Begin !"  The  count  in  a  rhythmical  movement  coincides  with 
the  end  of  the  movement.  Of  course  the  teacher  must  know  how 
to  carry  a  steady  rhythm.  If  he  wishes  to  change  this  while  the 
movement  is  in  progress,  an  admonition  to  that  effect  is  advis- 
able. This  is  followed  by  a  gradual  or  sudden  acceleration  or 
retardation,  as  the  case  may  be.  It  is  not  an  easy  matter  and 
depends  for  its  success  on  the  teacher's  skill  in  giving  the  count 
and  doing  his  own  movement  slightly  ahead  or  behind  the  ma- 
jority of  the  class. 


52  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

The  custom  of  "counting  up"  indefinitely,  or  at  least  to  sixteen, 
or  to  eight  and  then  backward,  instead  of  using  repeatedly  the 
first  two,  four  or  six  numerals — according  to  the  number  of 
parts  in  the  compound  movement — may  be  a  matter  of  taste. 
At  any  rate  it  is  a  matter  of  differing  opinion.  There  is  this  to 
be  said  against  counting  up:  It  implies  that  the  teacher  thinks 
it  his  duty  to  count  or  otherwise  mark  the  time  throughout,  and 
that  he  habitually  does  so.  This  may  not  be  the  best  thing  to  do. 
For  one  thing,  the  class  should  as  often  as  possible  be  given  an 
opportunity  to  carry  a  given  rhythm  unaided  by  the  teacher. 
Again,  the  teacher  should  find  other  things  to  do  besides  mark- 
ing time.  And  if  he  should  interrupt  his  counting  to  make  admo- 
nitions or  corrections,  it  is  more  difficult  to  hit  the  proper  count 
when  he  wishes  to  resume  the  counting,  after  an  interval,  in 
order  to  steady  the  rhythm.  If  he  begins  from  the  beginning 
each  time,  or  at  any  count  not  the  correct  one,  there  is  no  point 
to  continued  counting.  Finally,  most  of  the  numerals  above  six 
are  not  as  well  suited  to  convey  stimulation  or  to  influence  the 
work  by  variation  in  tone  of  voice  and  enunciation  as  those 
below  six.  The  only  advantage  of  counting  up  lies  in  the  auto- 
matic registering  of  the  number  of  repetitions.  When  the  cus- 
tomary method  of  counting  up  to  sixteen  (or  twenty  or  twenty- 
four)  is  used,  the  discontinuance  of  the  movement  is  also  auto- 
matic, for  unless  the  teacher  substitutes  for  the  last  two  counts 
an  order  for  the  repetition  of  this  dose,  or  a  change  to  another 
movement,  the  class  will  stop.  Often  the  preparation  for  this 
will  begin  quite  a  few  counts  before  the  last,  as  shown  by  less 
extensive  and  vigorous  movements,  and  even  by  the  "premature" 
stopping  of  some  individuals. 

To  stop  a  rhythmical,  continuous  movement  by  command  is  the 
only  sure  and  logical  way,  whatever  the  method  of  marking  time 
may  be.  But  the  kind  of  command  used  and  the  way  it  is  given 
will  vary,  not  only  with  the  method  of  marking  time,  but  with  the 
character  of  the  particular  movement  and  of  the  work  in  general. 

If  the  class  is  used  to  a  certain  number  of  repetitions  and 
these  are  indicated  by  the  count  or  by  the  music,  a  command  is, 
as  already  stated,  not  absolutely  necessary.  But  it  would  un- 
doubtedly be  better  to  have  the  understanding  with  the  class  that, 
unless  a  command  to  stop  is  given,  the  class  is  to  continue  doing 
the  movement.  To  stop  it  at  the  end  of  the  first  or  any  subse- 
quent series  of  repetitions  is  then  a  very  simple  matter.  The 
word  "Stop!"  or  "And  Stop!"  spoken  instead  of  the  last  count 
or  two,  with  only  slightly  raised  voice,  is  usually  effective.  Many 
use  the  term  "Hold!"  or  "Halt!" 

To  stop  a  continuous  movement  repeated  an  indefinite  number 
of  times  in  fast  rhythm,  marked  only  by  an  occasional  counting 


THE  TECHNIQUE  OF  COMMANDS  53 

or  other  device,  requires  a  command  given  with  a  good  deal  of 
power  and  timed  just  right.  There  are  two  distinct  kinds  of 
such  rhythmical  exercises,  each  requiring  its  own  distinctive 
command. 

1.  In  such  exercises  as  marching,  running,  alternate  knee- 
upward  bending,  rhythmical  jumping  and  dancing  steps  no  inter- 
mediate or  terminal  positions  are  held.     There  is  momentum, 
or  rebound,  and  the  body  weight  is  continually  being  shifted 
from  one  leg  to  the  other.     This  would  make  it  extremely  diffi- 
cult, if  not  impossible,  to  stop  immediately  after  the  signal  is 
given.     For  all  such  movements  the  command  "Class  halt!"  is 
the  most  suitable.     The  agreement  is  made  with  the  class  that 
two  complete  movements  are  to  be  executed  (three,  in  running) 
after  the  command  has  been  given.     The  teacher  should  insist 
upon  having  this  agreement  strictly  lived  up  to,  and  reserve  the 
command  "Class  halt!"  exclusively  for  exercises  of  this  type. 
If  used  in  other  kinds  of  gymnastic  movements  there  is  apt  to 
be  confusion. 

2.  In  exercises  demanding  at  least  a  momentary  retention  of 
terminal   and   intermediate  positions   it   is  unnecessary   to   give 
much  or  any  warning,  such  as  is  implied  in  the  command  "Class 
halt!"    The  body  weight  is  more  evenly  distributed,  the  equilib- 
rium   is    fairly   stable   and   the   momentum   is    (or   should   be) 
checked  as  the  position  is  reached.     To  stop  such  an  exercise  a 
single   word,   spoken   sharply,   is  usually   sufficient.     The  word 
"Halt!"  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  because  of  the  possibility  of 
confusion  with  "Class  halt!"    It  is,  however,  effectively  used  by 
many  teachers.     The  word  "Hold!"  is  also  commonly  used  and 
answers   fairly  well.     Like  "Halt!"   it  is  somewhat  inadequate 
because  of  the  long  vowel.    Then,  too,  the  word  "Hold !"  is  very 
useful  in  admonitions  to  the  class  to  emphasize  positions  while 
doing  a  rhythmical  movement.     It  might  very  well  be  reserved 
for  such  purposes.     The  word  "Stop!"  with  its  penetrating  "s" 
and  short  "o"  seems  on  the  whole  the  most  satisfactory.    If  pre- 
ceded by  the  word  "and"  the  latter  may  be  given  on  the  preceding 
count,  but  this  is  not  necessary.     Both  words  may  be  spoken 
together  in  such  a  way  that  the  "Stop!"  coincides  exactly  with 
the  arrival  of  the  class  to  a  given  position,  or  is  spoken  just  an 
instant  before.     The  more  definite  the  type  of  exercise,  and  the 
better  the  class  is  trained  to  hold  positions,  the  later  may  the 
command  be  given.     Shortening  this  little  interval  of  time,  or 
even  eliminating  it  altogether  and  stopping  the  class  unexpectedly 
in  any  position,  may,  indeed,  be  used  as  a  device  for  stimulating 
a  class  to  alertness,  to  greater  steadiness  and  accuracy  in  main- 


54  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

taining,  temporarily,  all  intermediate  and  terminal  positions.  The 
pupils  rather  like  being  put  on  their  mettle  in  this  way  from  time 
to  time. 

Summary.  To  be  effective  as  technical  devices  in  gymnastic 
teaching,  the  commands  must  be  selected  with  forethought  and 
care.  The  terms  used  must  be  simple,  brief  and  explicit.  They 
should  be  in  harmony  with  ordinary,  correct  usage  of  language, 
not  bizarre  or  slovenly  perversions  of  it.  They  should  be  given 
in  a  clear  voice,  sufficiently  loud  to  be  heard,  but  not  shouted. 
The  preparatory  part  should  always  be  enunciated  as  distinctly 
as  possible,  the  final  part  in  a  manner  that  will  compel  response. 
The  pause  between  the  two  parts  should  rarely,  with  but  few 
exceptions,  be  neglected,  and  never  be  of  quite  the  same  length 
in  successive  commands. 

Variety  in  intonation  of  the  preparatory  command ;  in  the 
duration  of  the  pause,  in  the  sharpness,  pitch,  inflection  and  force 
of  the  executionary  command — all  these  serve  not  only  to  sug- 
gest the  way  the  movement  should  be  done,  but  also  help  to 
relieve  and  prevent  monotony,  enliven  the  work,  inspire,  stimu- 
late and  put  life  into  a  class.  They  make  the  work  interesting  as 
well  as  effective.  While  there  is  nothing  so  deadening  and  fatal  to 
the  success  of  a  lesson  as  faulty,  inconsistent,  lengthy  and  too 
numerous  commands,  delivered  in  a  monotonous  voice,  a  skillful 
use  of  the  commands  may  lift  the  lesson  to  a  period  of  pleasant, 
interesting  and  spirited  activity. 


4.     THE  ACTIVE  AND  RELAXED  GYMNASTIC  POSITIONS. 

The  commands  most  frequently  used,  next  to  "Begin!"  and 
"Stop!"  are  probably  "Attention!"  and  "In  Place  Rest"  ("Rest" 
and  "At  Ease").  The  intelligent  use  of  these  commands  is  of 
the  utmost  importance  is  securing  and  retaining  the  attention  of 
the  class,  in  eliciting  promptness  and  unison  of  response  to  all 
other  commands,  as  well  as  vigor  and  correctness  of  execution  in 
the  exercises.  On  the  other  hand,  their  misuse  or  lack  of  use 
are  conducive  to  slackened  interest,  poor  fundamental  position 
and  incorrect  execution.  The  proper  response  to  these  commands, 
therefore,  should  be  worked  for  and  insisted  on,  and  should  be 
secured  at  all  hazards.  Perhaps  no  other  single  item  of  the 
technique  of  teaching  is  as  sure  a  test  and  index  of  the  teacher's 
hold  on  the  class  or  of  the  pupils'  attitude  toward  the  work 
as  their  response  to  the  command  "Attention!"  The  promptness 
and  vigor  of  the  response  to  this  command  determines  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  the  spirit  and  quality  of  the  work  as  a  whole. 


ACTIVE  AND  RELAXED  POSITIONS  55 

The  active  or  fundamental  gymnastic  position,   or  position   of 

attention. 

This  is  in  many  respects  an  exaggerated  position.  It  should 
be  made  clear  to  the  class  that  it  means  something  more  than 
merely  standing  in  an  easy,  "natural"  position,  even  though  this 
may  be  fairly  correct  and  acceptable  from  an  aesthetic  standpoint ; 
that  it  means  something  more  than  mere  attentiveness,  however 
complete  this  may  be.  The  fundamental  gymnastic  position — 
whether  assumed  on  the  command  "Attention!"  from  the  relaxed 
position,  or  on  the  command  "Position!"  from  any  other  gym- 
nastic position,  or  at  the  end  of  a  serial  movement — involves  hard 
work  of  both  mind  and  body.  It  implies,  of  course,  alertness, 
readiness  to  think  and  to  do,  and  the  nervous  tension  that  this  calls 
for.  But,  besides,  it  should  be  so  defined  as  to  demand  hard 
muscular  work,  work  of  a  kind  and  in  directions  largely  neglected 
in  ordinary  activities — static  contraction  of  those  muscular  groups 
of  the  upper  back  and  abdomen  which  are  habitually  relaxed  or 
subjected  to  passive  tension.  It  is  on  the  control,  tone  and  en- 
durance of  these  muscle  groups  that  good  posture  ultimately 
depends.  The  fundamental  gymnastic  position  should  be  con- 
sidered an  exercise  for  good  posture.  Indeed,  maintaining  a 
good  fundamental  position  while  walking  or  doing  any  other 
exercise  is  perhaps  the  most  effective  way  of  permanently  improv- 
ing posture.  Hence  the  importance  of  starting  every  gymnastic 
movement  from  a  good  fundamental  position. 

When  the  command  "Attention!"  has  been  given  and  a  prompt, 
satisfactory  response  obtained,  it  is  well  for  both  teacher  and 
class  to  hold  the  fundamental  position  a  moment  before  proceed- 
ing with  the  next  exercise.  Following  the  less  constrained  bodily 
and  mental  attitude  and  the  buzzing  of  conversation  permitted 
in  the  relaxed  position,  such  a  brief  period  of  rigid  immobility 
and  silence  emphasizes  the  contrast  between  the  relaxed  and 
the  active  position ;  it  gives  opportunity  for  some  "belated"  pupils 
to  get  their  attention  focused,  and  so  helps  to  steady  a  class. 
For  similar  reasons  the  fundamental  position  should  be  held  a 
second  or  two  at  the  end  of  a  gymnastic  movement,  before  the 
command  for  the  next  exercise  or  for  the  relaxed  position  is 
given. 

On  the  other  hand  avoid  holding  a  class  motionless  in  the 
position  of  attention  longer  than  necessary.  Immobility  of  any 
kind  is  always  difficult  and  irksome.  The  nervous  tension  of 
expectancy,  as  well  as  the  muscular  strain  demanded  in  the  funda- 
mental position,  makes  it  particularly  severe  on  the  pupils  who 
are  willing  and  able  to  hold  a  strong  position ;  while  those  who  are 


56  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

disinclined  to  sustained  mental  and  bodily  exertion,  or  who  lack 
the  requisite  endurance,  training  and  understanding  of  the  work, 
very  soon  begin  to  show  signs  of  diminishing  muscular  effort  and 
dispersed  attention.  In  fact,  it  is  next  to  impossible  to  keep  the 
whole  class  in  the  extreme  position  of  attention  very  long.  Any 
attempt  to  do  so,  whether  intentional  or  not,  will  almost  invariably 
result  in  partial  relaxation,  muscular  or  mental,  or  both,  on 
the  part  of  many  members  of  the  class.  This  either  means  going 
on  and  accepting  a  faulty  position  and  imperfect  attention,  or 
it  necessitates  giving  the  command  "Attention!"  once  more.  The 
former  leads  to  poor  work,  the  latter  is  equivalent  to  repeating  a 
command  because  it  has  been  ineffective  the  first  time.  That 
would  be  a  confession  of  weakness  and  would  tend  to  lessen  the 
teacher's  control.  Both  procedures  are  pedagogically  undesir- 
able. The  best  thing  to  do  when  the  first  command  "Attention!" 
fails  to  evoke  an  acceptable  response,  or  when  any  considerable 
number  of  pupils  relapse  to  a  state  of  partial  inattention  or  poor 
fundamental  position,  is  to  give  "In  Place  Rest!" ;  then  immedi- 
ately, or  after  a  brief  admonition,  command  "Attention!"  in  a 
way  to  compel  a  sudden  and  emphatic  assumption  of  the  funda- 
mental position.  During  its  momentary  retention  the  teacher 
has  time  to  scan  the  class  and  make  sure  that  every  pupil  is 
erect  and  attentive.  Then,  and  not  until  then,  give  the  command 
for  the  next  exercise.  In  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  it  may  be 
necessary  to  repeat  this  procedure  several  times  before  a  good 
result  is  obtained.  (Especially  is  this  true  of  an  untrained  class.) 

It  is  a  very  common  mistake  to  give  explanations  or  descrip- 
tions of  exercises  or  lengthy  admonitions  while  the  class  is  in 
the  position  of  attention.  These,  unless  very  brief,  should  be 
made  while  the  class  is  standing  at  ease.  To  secure  the  pupils' 
attention  at  any  time  when  they  have  been  allowed  to  relax  to 
a  considerable  extent  and  there  is  more  or  less  talking,  etc.  (such 
as  might  be  safe  to  permit),  command  "Class  Attention!"  Then 
give  "In  Place  Rest!"  and  begin  speaking  as  soon  as  this  last 
command  has  been  executed.  The  attention  of  the  pupils  will 
be  retained  while  they  are  formally  relieved  from  the  muscular 
strain  of  the  rigid  fundamental  position.  As  soon  as  the  explana- 
tions, etc.,  have  been  made  the  teacher  should  at  once  command 
"Attention!"  If  he  has  succeeded  in  holding  their  attention  while 
speaking  and  no  opportunity  is  given  for  mind  wandering  or 
complete  relaxation  the  class  should  be  readily  brought  to  the 
fundamental  position. 

Occasionally  it  may  be  expedient  to  make  an  exception  to  what 
has  been  stated  in  the  foregoing  paragraphs  and  deliberately  hold 
the  class  motionless  in  the  fundamental  position  for  some  little 
time.  It  may  be  done,  for  example,  when  the  majority  of  a  class 


ACTIVE  AND  RELAXED  POSITIONS  57 

has  responded  to  the  command  "Attention!"  in  an  acceptable 
manner,  while  a  few  members  are  so  deeply  engrossed  in  con- 
versation or  "day  dreaming"  that  they  fail  to  hear  the  command. 
It  is  then  amusing  to  the  rest  of  the  class  to  see  the  delinquents, 
often  with  some  embarrassment,  gradually  wake  up  to  the  fact 
that  everybody  else  is  ready  to  go  ahead  and  only  awaiting  their 
belated  "arrival."  The  moral  effect  on  the  class  as  well  as  on  the 
inattentive  members  is  apt  to  be  good.  While  in  one  sense  it  is 
an  unjust  hardship  on  the  majority,  there  is  usually  enough  of 
the  humorous  element  in  such  a  situation  to  redeem  it.  It  is 
safest  to  keep  it  on  that  plane.  The  teacher  may  contribute  to 
this  by  standing  himself  at  rigid  attention,  indicating  by  a  quiet 
word  or  two,  or  by  looking  significantly  at  the  culprit,  the  pur- 
pose of  the  prolonged  delay.  But  do  not  resort  to  this  expedient 
too  often,  nor  continue  it  too  long  at  any  time.  If  overdone  the 
class  might  fail  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  it,  and  the  effect  might 
be  opposite  to  what  was  intended. 

The  relaxed  gymnastic  position. 

This  may  be  defined  as  a  partial  relaxation  from  the  muscular 
strain  and  nervous  tension  of  the  active  gymnastic  position.  It 
is  assumed  on  the  command  "In  Place  Rest!"  ("Rest!"  or  "At 
Ease!").  To  a  certain  (agreed  upon)  extent  this  command  also 
signifies  temporary  relief  from  the  restraint  of  formal  class  disci- 
pline. The  relief  does  not  begin,  however,  until  the  movement 
leading  to  the  position  has  been  executed.  This  should  be  con- 
sidered a  gymnastic  movement  and  treated  as  such.  Insist  upon 
having  the  command  responded  to  like  any  other  gymnastic  com- 
mand— with  promptness,  precision  and  unison.  Only  when  that 
has  been  done  is  the  class  allowed  to  relax. 

The  customary  movement  consists  in  advancing  one  foot 
diagonally  outward  or  directly  sideways.  If  diagonally,  the 
weight  remains  on  the  stationary  foot.  Many  teachers  require 
that  the  right  foot  be  advanced  so  that  the  body  weight  may  rest 
on  the  left  foot,  on  the  theory  that  this  reverses  the  habitual 
easy  standing  position  (with  the  left  foot  out,  the  right  hip  pro- 
jecting and  the  spine  convex  to  the  left)  assumed  by  the  average 
person.  Encouraging  the  opposite  position  would  tend  to  correct 
any  slight  lateral  deviation  of  the  spine.  This  may  be  a  matter 
of  opinion,  and  it  probably  makes  but  little,  if  any,  difference 
which  foot  is  advanced,  provided  that  all  move  the  same  foot 
in  response  to  the  command.  When  that  has  been  done  it  is 
advisable  to  allow  the  pupils  to  stand  as  they  please,  so  long  as 
they  retain  their  places  in  the  line  and  do  not  assume  an  outright 
faulty  posture  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  As  to  the  degree 


58  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

of  mental  relaxation — whether,  for  example,  conversation  is  to 
be  allowed — that  is  a  matter  for  the  teacher's  judgment  and  will 
depend  upon  circumstances.  With  a  well-behaved  class  con- 
siderable latitude  in  this  respect  is  usually  safe.  If  abused,  so 
as  to  lead  to  noise  and  disorder,  the  privilege  may  be  curtailed 
or  withdrawn,  temporarily  at  least.  Any  tendency  in  this  direc- 
tion must  be  watched  for  and  promptly  checked.  One  way  to 
check  it  is  to  make  the  periods  of  relaxation  rather  brief  and  also 
less  frequent.  If  the  class  is  made  to  work  as  hard  and  as 
rapidly  and  for  as  long  periods  as  is  consistent  with  safety,  there 
will  not  be  much  desire  for  mischief  when  a  rest  is  given. 

The  technique  of  using  the  relaxed  position,  while  not  difficult, 
is  often  faulty  because  of  mere  carelessness.  Teachers,  as  well 
as  classes,  are  prone  to  forget  that  the  command  "In  Place  Rest!" 
is  really  a  gymnastic  command  and  calls  for  a  specified  movement. 
Not  only  is  the  teacher  apt  to  accept  a  poor  response  to  this 
command,  but  he  often  brings  it  about  by  giving  the  command  in 
an  ineffective  manner — hurriedly,  without  any  particular  intona- 
tion, as  something  not  meaning  a  great  deal,  in  parenthesis  as 
it  were,  not  expected  to  elicit  any  definite  response.  It  is  a  habit 
even  experienced  teachers  readily  fall  into. 

Beginning  to  speak  to  a  class  before  the  command  has  been 
properly  executed  is  another  very  common  cause  for  poor  re- 
sponse. It  usually  goes  together  with  an  ineffective  command. 
Both  faults  tend  to  weaken  the  teacher's  power  of  command  and 
his  hold  on  the  attention  of  the  class. 

Many  teachers  do  not  use  the  relaxed  position  at  all.  That 
is,  they  do  not  give  the  command  "In  Place  Rest!"  (or  its  equiva- 
lent in  other  terms).  But  the  class  will  relax  more  or  less  of 
its  own  accord  whenever  there  is  a  pause  in  the  lesson.  The 
command  "Attention!"  is  then  also  frequently  neglected.  Whether 
these  commands  are  given  or  not,  slackness  or  neglect  in  the 
use  of  the  relaxed  position  is  usually  associated  with  listlessness 
or  poor  posture,  or  both,  in  the  active  position.  For  on  the 
proper  use  of  the  relaxed  position  depends  to  a  large  extent  the 
degree  of  success  attained  in  securing  and  maintaining  a  good 
active  position — mental  and  bodily.  Making  the  contrast  between 
the  two  as  striking  as  possible  and  the  transition  from  one  to 
the  other  sharp,  sudden  and  uniform  is  conducive  to  good  disci- 
pline as  well  as  good  spirit  and  quality  of  work. 

Simply  forgetting  to  give  "In  Place  Rest!"  when  the  teacher 
really  knows  that  it  should  be  given  is  a  fault  often  seen.  A 
little  watchfulness  and  practice  will  soon  overcome  this  habit. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  use  of  the  relaxed  position  may  be  over- 
done and  very  often  is,  even  by  experienced  teachers.  A  few 
suggestions  as  to  its  use  may  be  helpful. 


INSTRUCTION  59 

When  to  use  the  relaxed  position.  (1)  When  actually  needed 
by  the  class  after  hard  work.  This  means  that  the  work  shall 
have  been  of  a  character  and  duration  to  make  a  short  rest  ap- 
preciated. Signs  of  such  need  should  always  be  watched  for  and 
noted  by  the  teacher.  He  may  judge  by  the  vigor  of  the  work, 
the  color  and  expression  of  the  pupils'  faces,  hard  breathing,  the 
heaving  of  a  sigh  at  the  end  of  a  movement,  etc. 

.(2)  When  speaking  to  a  class;  when  making  explanations, 
descriptions  or  demonstrations  of  exercises,  or  making  general 
(verbal)  corrections  of  a  lengthy  character  when  the  first  attempt 
of  a  movement  has  not  been  satisfactory. 

(3)  When  making  individual  corrections  in  a  way  that  takes 
some  time  and  cannot  well  be  done  while  the  class  is  working. 
Also  when  wishing  to  reprove  or  speak  to  an  individual  about 
any  matter  which  does  not  concern,  the  whole  class.  But  it  is 
not  wise  to  do  this  very  often. 

When  not  to  use  the  relaxed  position.  (1)  In  a  perfunctory, 
routine  way,  between  every  movement,  whether  needed  or  not. 

(2)  For  the  teacher's  convenience,  while  he  is  trying  to  think 
what  to  do  next,  or  is  absorbed  in  a  lengthy  study  of  his  memo- 
randum, etc.     Such  practice  not  only  needlessly  interrupts  the 
work,  but  puts  the  teacher  in  an  unfavorable  light  before  the 
class.    Pauses  of  this  kind  are  always  more  or  less  embarrassing. 

(3)  When  very  brief  explanations  or  admonitions  are  given. 


5.     INSTRUCTION. 

Under  this  head  may  be  grouped  those  procedures  which  make 
up  the  positive  side  of  teaching,  such  as  presentation  or  explana- 
tion and  demonstration  of  exercises ;  cues,  admonitions,  stimula- 
tions and  warnings,  either  before  the  exercise  is  started  or  during 
its  progress:  devices  for  guiding  or  modifying  the  rhythm,  for 
varying  the  speed  or  other  features  of  the  movement,  etc.  When, 
how  and  to  what  extent  each  of  these  are  to  be  used  will  depend 
on  the  objects  and  character  of  the  work  as  well  as  the  general 
method  of  teaching. 

Preparation.  Before  taking  up  the  detailed  consideration  of  the 
above  topics  it  may  not  be  out  of  place  at  this  time  to  suggest  that 
the  teacher  owes  it  to  himself  as  well  as  to  the  class  to  be  well  pre- 
pared for  each  lesson.  In  the  first  place  he  should  meet  each  class 
with  a  clear  and  definite  plan  of  the  lesson  in  his  mind.  While 
extemporaneous  teaching  may  be  indulged  in  occasionally,  or  for 
a  short  series  of  lessons,  by  an  experienced  teacher  with  safety  and 
sometimes  even  with  distinct  advantage  as  regards  animation 
and  interest  in  the  work,  to  do  so  habitually  is,  to  say  the  least, 


60  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

unwise.  There  is  great  liability  to  get  into  ruts,  to  use  constantly 
certain  types  of  exercises  and  to  neglect  other  types  which  may 
be  equally  useful  and  interesting.  The  progression,  too,  is  apt 
to  suffer.  But  a  general  plan  of  the  lesson  (and  preferably 
series  of  lessons)  is  not  always  enough  in  the  way  of  preparation. 
If  we  wish  a  class  to  do  an  exercise  correctly,  the  first  requisite 
is  that  we  know  exactly  what  we  want — that  we  ourselves  have 
a  clear  idea  of  each  movement.  This  is  not  always  the  case, 
especially  with  young  and  inexperienced  teachers,  and  it  usually 
means  insufficient  preparation.  Not  only  is  it  advisable  to  commit 
to  memory  the  names  and  order  of  the  exercises,  but  it  may  be 
well  to  go  through  the  movements — mentally  at  least,  but  actually 
is  even  better — before  giving  the  lesson.  Being  fortified  as  far 
as  possible  by  a  thorough  preparation  the  teacher  will  be  able 
to  put  his  whole  mind  on  getting  the  work  done  satisfactorily, 
rather  than  in  embarrassing  efforts  to  think  what  to  do  next 
and  how  to  go  about  it.  It  will  also  reduce  to  a  minimum  the 
necessity  for  frequent  and  lengthy  reference  to  a  memorandum. 

Presentation  or  explanation  and  demonstration  of  exercises. 
Given  a  reasonable  amount  of  willingness  and  cooperation  on 
the  part  of  the  class,  the  first  essential  in  presenting  an  exercise 
is  to  make  the  pupils  understand  exactly  what  they  are  to  do,  i.e., 
produce  a  clear,  vivid  image  of  the  exercise  in  their  minds.  This 
may  be  done  in  several  ways. 

1.  The  exercise  may  be  described  clearly  and  concisely,  using 
such  terms  as  the  class  will  readily  understand.  The  important 
features  are  emphasized,  the  difficulties  are  pointed  out  and  faults 
which  are  liable  to  occur  are  warned  against.  Suggestions  regard- 
ing the  kind  of  muscular  efforts  needed  for  correct  execution  may 
be  made  in  terms  of  some  familiar  activity,  thus  bringing  the 
imagination  and  the  associative  processes  to  bear  on  the  new  or 
difficult  elements  of  the  exercise.  With  children  a  teacher  may 
go  far  afield  in  this  respect  and  illustrate  the  movement  in  a 
great  variety  of  ways  appealing  to  the  childish  imagination.  With 
adults  he  is  more  limited,  but  with  a  little  ingenuity  he  will  find 
abundant  material  for  suggestive  illustrations  in  well-known  games 
and  sports  as  well  as  in  many  forms  of  labor.  For  example,  in 
giving  such  a  movement  as  "Running  in  place  with  knee-upward 
bending"  to  a  class  of  children  the  teacher  may  finish  the  brief 
description  with  the  suggestion  that  the  pupils  do  it  "like  a  high- 
stepping  horse."  Or  if  giving  a  slow,  resisted  "Arm  bending 
and  stretching  upward"  to  a  class  of  older  pupils  the  teacher 
may  tell  them  to  do  the  movement  as  if  they  were  pushing  up 
and  pulling  down  a  heavy  weight. 


INSTRUCTION  61 

The  descriptive  method  of  presentation  is  hardly  ever  sufficient, 
by  itself,  to  produce  a  clear  picture  of  the  exercise,  except  possibly 
in  the  simplest  kinds  of  movements  or  with  very  well-trained 
classes.  Unless  accompanied  by  more  or  less  detailed  demonstra- 
tion it  is  apt  to  be  too  lengthy,  time-consuming  and  tedious,  as 
well  as  inadequate.  It  involves  too  much  talking  in  order  to 
make  every  detail  clear.  It  requires  a  closer  attention  and  greater 
ability  to  understand  than  we  have  a  right  to  expect  from  any 
class  and  tends  to  make  the  lesson  too  much  of  a  mental  drill. 

2.  Another  method  depends  entirely  on  the  demonstration  of 
the   (complete)   exercise.     Little  or  no  description,  explanation 
or  suggestion  is  made.    Counting  as  he  executes  each  part  of  the 
movement  before  the  class,  the  teacher  may  add  some  general 
direction  or  admonition  regarding  rhythm  or  vigor  in  the  execu- 
tion, then  with  a  preparatory  "All   ready,"  and  a  final  "One! 
Two!"  etc.,  or  "Begin!"  (or  even  without  any  final  command)  the 
exercise  is  started. 

This  method  has  the  advantage  of  simplicity  and  brevity.  But 
it  depends  too, much  on  unaided  observation  and  visual  memory. 
If  the  exercise  is  unfamiliar  or  fairly  complex,  many  pupils  are 
likely  to  overlook  important  details  and  retain  only  an  incomplete 
or  faulty  mental  picture  of  it.  Or  they  may  fail  to  execute  it 
correctly  because  without  helpful  suggestions  they  do  not  know 
how  to  make  the  right  muscular  efforts. 

3.  A   third    method    uses   th%   "Follow-the-leader"    principle 
exclusively.     As  the  teacher  executes  each  movement,  or  part 
of  a  compound  movement,  the  pupils  imitate  it  as  closely  and  as 
quickly  as  their  interest,   attention  and  power  of  coordination 
permit.    The  teacher  usually  counts,  and  for  the  first  "round"  or 
two  does  not  expect  or  even  attempt  to  get  the  exact  rhythm 
or  atiy  semblance  of  unison.    That  would  of  course  be  unreason- 
able.   But  after  a  few  repetitions  the  class  gradually  "slides"  into 
the  rhythm  of  the  movement  and  may  attain  a  fair  degree  of 
unison,  especially  when  accompanied  by  music.     The  method  is 
employed  extensively  in  teaching  dancing.     Many  teachers  of 
gymnastics  use  it  inadvertently,  or  from  a  mistaken  desire  to 
help  a  class,  or  as  a  misapplication  of  the  principle  of  "cues," 
when  trying  to  give  single  movements  on  command.     By  doing 
the  movement  while  giving  the  final  command,  instead  of  after 
finishing  it,  they  induce  the  class. to  do  likewise.     This  may  be 
carried  to  such  an  extent  that  the  class  follows  the  teacher's 
movement  by  direct  imitation  without  paying  any  attention  what- 
ever to  the  command.    The  latter  might  just  as  well  be  dispensed 
with.    When  used  in  this  way  the  method  has  nothing  to  recom- 
mend it.     It  usually  means  ragged  work  and  often  leads  to  mis- 


62  t;y.\l X.-IST1C  TEACH  l.\(, 

understanding  and  dissatisfaction.  This  has  already  been  pointed 
out  in  the  discussion  of  gymnastic  commands. 

When  skillfully  employed,  however,  the  method  may  serve  well 
enough  in  some  forms  of  rhythmical  gymnastic  work  of  a  more 
or  less  indefinite  character  and  approaching  the  dancing  type. 
It  may  be  useful  under  certain  circumstances,  as,  for  example, 
when  teaching  very  young  children,  or  classes  of  adults  in  which 
it  is  desirable  to  eliminate  as  far  as  possible  the  purely  mental 
work. 

On  the  other  hand  this  method  is  wholly  inadequate  when  it 
is  desired  to  give  work  of  the  definite  type  with  a  view  to 
increasing  the  power  of  conscious  or  volitional  motor  control.  In 
such  work  the  pupils  are  required  to  construct  their  own  motor 
images  or  to  reproduce,  after  a  varying  interval  of  time,  a 
movement  which  they  have  been  shown.  This  might  be  called 
volitional  or  deliberative  reproduction,  and  is  a  more  complex 
process  than  the  immediate  or  perceptual  imitation  which  the  third 
method  calls  for. 

The  methods  of  presentation  most  used,  because  giving  great- 
est satisfaction  from  all  points  of  view,  are  combinations  of  the 
first  two  described,  viz.,  a  descriptive  explanation  accompanied 
by  a  more  or  less  detailed  demonstration.  The  proportion  of  each 
will  vary  with  different  teachers,  with  the  style  of  work  taught 
as  well  as  with  the  conditions  under  which  the  work  is  carried 
on.  The  total  amount  of  instruction  required  for  each  exercise 
will  of  course  depend  on  the  stage  of  progress  of  any  class  and 
its  familiarity  with  a  given  exercise  or  the  elements  of  which  it 
is  composed.  With  well-trained  classes  and  rational  progression 
a  considerable  number  of  movements  require  no  other  presenta- 
tion than  a  descriptive  command,  at  most  accompanied  by  a  "cue." 

Cues.  The  detailed  instruction  given  when  presenting  an  exer- 
cise may,  as  stated,  be  replaced  by  a  "cue."  The  word  is  used  here 
to  mean  a  quick  or  fragmentary  representation  of  the  exercise, 
neither  complete  nor  accurate  enough  to  be  called  a  demonstra- 
tion, and  serving  merely  as  a  reminder  or  suggestive  indication 
of  a  movement  with  which  the  class  is  supposed  to  be  familiar. 
//  is  (jircn  as  the  preparatory  command  is  being  delivered.  It 
insures  the  correct  interpretation  of  the  command  by  all  the 
(attentive)  members  of  the  class  and  aids  in  their  construction 
of  the  "image"  of  the  exercise.  When  the  movement  is  com- 
pound and  fairly  complex,  several  parts  of  the  body  moving 
simultaneously  as  well  as  successively,  the  preparatory  command, 
if  descriptive,  is  usually  quite  long.  In  that  case  there  is  time, 
if  occasion  calls  for  it,  to  make  the  cue  sufficiently  detailed 
to  amount  to  a  rapid  demonstration,  finishing  it  just  before  the 


INSTRUCTION  63 

final  command  is  given.  Cues  of  this  kind  are  very  useful  as 
time-saving  devices.  The  extent  to  which  they  may  be  used 
depends,  like  every  other  feature  of  the  instruction,  on  the  pro- 
gression and  the  stage  of  advancement  of  the  class. 

The  term  cue  may  also  be  applied  to  suggestive  reminders — 
movements  by  the  teacher  accompanied  or  not  by  admonitions — 
while  a  rhythmical  movement  is  in  progress.  They  are  partic- 
ularly useful  in  the  more  complex  combinations  of  movements, 
such,  for  example,  as  charges  or  lunges  combined  with  dissimilar 
arm  movements  and  even  trunk  and  head  movements  in  opposite 
directions. 

Cues  are  also  used  to  assist  a  class  in  going  through  memorized 
gymnastic  drills,  in  the  same  way  as  when  teaching  dances.  As 
the  class  is  executing  the  last  part  of  one  exercise,  the  teacher 
indicates  the  next  by  a  movement  varying  in  extent  from  a 
slight  gesture  to  a  complete  and  exact  demonstration  of  the  first 
part  of  the  next  exercise.  Such  a  movement  takes  the  place 
of  a  verbal  reminder  when  a  suitably  brief  and  concise  term 
is  lacking,  or  when  the  music  or  noise  made  by  dumb-bells,  etc., 
might  make  it  difficult  for  many  pupils  to  hear. 

Admonitions  and  stimulations.  Admonitions  may  be  given  as 
a  part  of  the  presentation,  or  as  supplementary  instruction.  In 
the  latter  case  they  may  follow  the  presentation  directly,  serving 
to  emphasize  or  reenforce  some  essential  point  already  made,  or 
adding  another.  For  example,  after  demonstrating  and  explain- 
ing such  an  exercise  as  "Alternate  arm  flinging  sideways-upward 
with  opposite  leg  flinging  sideways"  the  teacher  may  add:  "Re- 
member to  make  the  down-stroke  just  as  vigorous  as  the  up- 
stroke." Or  admonitions  may  be  given  after  the  class  has 
assumed  the  position  of  attention  and  the  command  for  the 
exercise  is  about  to  be  given.  They  may  even  be  made  a  part 
of  the  preparatory  command.  Giving  the  rhythm  for  a  contin- 
uous movement  or  restating  it  may  serve  as  examples  of  the 
former;  indicating  the  speed  of  the  movement — by  some  such 
word  as  "Slowly"  or  "With  utmost  speed,"  etc. — as  examples 
of  the  latter.  In  either  case  the  admonition  should  be  as  brief 
as  possible,  in  order  not  to  hold  the  class  immobile  too  long  in 
the  fundamental  position. 

When  each  movement,  or  part  of  a  compound  movement,  is 
done  on  command,  the  short  periods  spent  by  the  class  in  holding 
positions  may  be  utilized  by  the  teacher  in  giving  further  or 
repeated  admonitions  regarding  the  execution  of  the  next  move- 
ment, as  well  as  in  correcting  the  position  or  criticising  the  move- 
ment by  which  it  was  reached.  Such  admonitions  are  often  of 
a  warning  character,  asking  the  class  to  look  out  for  some  fault 


64  C,y.MNASTIC  TEACH IX (i 

or  shortcoming  apparent  in  the  execution  of  the  preceding  move- 
ment. They  are  then  somewhat  in  the  nature  of  corrections, 
and  if  given  in  the  right  way — in  a  spirit  of  helpfulness — are  very 
effective.  Here  again  they  must  be  brief  and  to  the  point,  for 
the  pupils  are  (or  should  be)  working  hard  holding  a  gymnastic 
position  often  even  more  fatiguing  than  the  fundamental  position. 
Finally,  admonitions  find  their  greatest  field  of  usefulness  when 
the  work  consists  of  rhythmical,  continuous  exercises.  Even 
when  the  rhythm  is  smooth  and  uniform  and  there  is  little  or 
no  effort  made  to  hold  positions,  an  energetic  teacher  will  find 
occasion  for  frequent  admonitions.  But  when  exercises  of  a 
definite  type  are  done  serially  or  continuously,  with  syncopated 
and  often  broken  or  undulating  rhythm,  and  the  intermediate  as 
well  as  terminal  positions  are  held  a  varying  length  of  time,  then 
admonitions  constitute  a  large  and  most  important  part  of  the 
instruction.  Here  they  are  often  of  necessity  in  the  form  of 
warnings  and  corrections,  but  even  more  frequently  they  are, 
or  should  be,  of  a  positive  character — suggestive,  stimulating. 
To  maintain  a  rhythmical  gymnastic  exercise  on  the  plane  of 
conscious,  volitional  effort,  to  keep  it  from  becoming  an  easy, 
"mechanically"  executed  movement — a  purely  reflex  action  with- 
out much  or  any  conscious  coordination  or  effort — requires  con- 
stant and  varied  stimulation.  A  wide-awake,  enthusiastic  teacher 
may  find  it  to  advantage  to  keep  up  a  continual  stream  of  stimulat- 
ing admonitions,  now  directed  to  one  part  of  the  class,  now  to 
another,  but  more  often  addressed  to  the  whole  class.  Such 
stimulation  may  be  needed  to  steady  the  rhythm,  to  slow  it  down 
or  to  accelerate  it;  to  increase  the  speed  in  one  movement  and 
to  decrease  it  in  another;  to  get  the  class  to  try  for  more  pre- 
cision, more  vigor  in  the  execution ;  to  insure  the  holding  of 
positions  longer  and  with  greater  steadiness,  more  perfect  weight 
distribution;  to  aid  the  class  in  beginning  and  finishing  each 
movement  with  more  accent  and  with  better  unison ;  to  remind  the 
class  of  agreed-upon  signals  for  and  different  methods  of  stopping 
the  exercise,  etc.  There  is  no  limit  to  the  variety  of  form  and 
the  degree  of  intensity  of  such  stimulation.  While  a  partial 
list  might  be  made  of  expressions  actually  used  by  various  teach- 
ers in  stimulating  classes,  it  is  doubtful  if  it  would  be  of  much 
value,  except  as  suggestive  material.  Any  attempt  to  use  such 
a  list — verbatim — would  be  in  the  nature  of  imitation,  would, 
therefore,  with  difficulty  be  made  to  appear  spontaneous,  and  con- 
sequently would  be  more  or  less  ineffective.  Again,  general  use 
of  language  and  special  terms  suited  to  one  class  might  not  and, 
in  fact,  rarely  would,  be  suitable  to  another  class.  Each  teacher 
must  depend  on  his  own  ingenuity,  inspiration  and  sense  of  fit- 
ness of  things  to  hit  on  adequate  and  appropriate  methods  of 


INSTRUCTION  65 

stimulations     Some    general    principles    regarding    the    use    of 
stimulation  may,  however,  be  suggested. 

1.  As  in  the  case  of  discipline,  so  with  stimulation:  never  use 
any  stronger  means  than  is  necessary  to  attain  the  desired  end. 
With  a  new  class,  unaccustomed  to  the  teacher's  ways  or  to  the 
kind  of  work  he  is  to  give  and  with  the  spirit  of  willing  coopera- 
tion  often   shown   in   the   beginning,    suggestions   expressed   in 
moderate  terms  without  great  intensity  of  voice  may  be  sufficient. 
Such  moderation  in  the  beginning  is  usually  the  wisest  course  for 
two  reasons :  At  first  there  are  a  great  many  details  in  the  work 
calling  for  the  use  of  stimulating  admonitions.    Some  discrimina- 
tion must  be  used  in  treating  each  according  to  its  relative  im- 
portance.   Second,  as  the  work  progresses  its  quality  is  expected 
to  improve,  and  if  the  strongest  measures  have  been  used  to 
attain  mediocre'  results,   how   are  the   finer  and  more   difficult 
distinctions  and  effects  to  be  obtained?     Besides,  as  the  pupils 
become  accustomed  to  a  teacher's  methods  of  stimulation  they 
naturally  grow  less  sensitive  and  responsive  to  them.    This  makes 
it  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  use  constantly  new  forms  of  ex- 
pression, and,  up  to  a  certain  limit,  with  increasing  intensity  and 
power  in  order  to  be  effective.     For  these  reasons  it  behooves 
a  teacher  to  husband  his  resources,  always  keeping  something  in 
reserve;  to  be  patient  and  not  expect  everything  at  once;  to  be 
satisfied  with  a  fair  degree  of  responsiveness,  alacrity,   speed, 
unison,  etc.,  at  first  and  trust  to  the  combined  effects  of  the 
work  and  his  whole  teaching  (supplemented  by  gradually  increas- 
ing stimulation)  for  further  improvement  in  the  quality  and  finish 
of  the  work. 

2.  In  apparent  contradiction  to  the  above,  it  may  sometimes 
be  wise  to  use  extravagant  terms  of  expression  (not  at  too  early 
a  stage,  however).  It  may  be  justifiable  if  such  terms  are  of  a 
particularly  suggestive  character  and  especially  if   they  are  at 
the  same  time  more  or  less  humorous,  either  by  virtue  of  their 
extravagance  or  otherwise.     For  example,  when  trying  to  stimu- 
late a  class  to  greater  effort  and  wider  range  of  movement  in 
the  exercise  "Alternate  knee  upward  bending"  it  may  be  permis- 
sible to  use  such  an  admonition  as  "Try  to  touch  the  chin  with 
the  knee  without  ducking  the  head  forward"  even  though  in  a 
literal  sense  such  a  thing  is  an  impossibility.     The  class  soon 
finds  this  out,  if  it  does  not  know  it  before,  but  that  does  not 
detract   from  the  effectiveness   of  the  suggestion.     The  pupils 
usually  take  such  a  thing  humorously  while  responding  as  desired 
to  the  implied  stimulation. 

3.  Most  admonitions  may  be  increased  in  their  effectiveness 
by  being  timed  so  as  to  coincide  with,  or  only  slightly  precede,  the 
particular  movement  or  position  for  which  they  are  intended. 


66  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

They  must  then  be  given  very  quickly.  This  requires  some  skill, 
but  with  a  little  practice  any  one  may  learn  to  do  it.  Examples 
of  such  timing  are  the  admonitions  for  varying  the  speed  of 
a  movement  given  at  the  end  of  the  preceding;  or  "Hold  it  a 
moment"  spoken  just  as  the  class  arrives  in  a  position.  "Cues" 
and  verbal  reminders  of  the  next  movement  in  any  exercise 
composed  of  several  dissimilar  elements  are  timed  in  much  the 
same  way.  Intercepting  a  movement  in  this  manner  is  very 
effective,  if  skillfully  done. 

6.     CORRECTION. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  teaching  and  one  of 
the  most  difficult.  It  is  complementary  to  instruction  and  in  one 
sense  may  be  considered  the  negative  side  of  teaching.  On  the 
promptness,  effectiveness  and  tact  with  which  corrections  are 
made  depends  to  a  large  extent  the  quality  of  the  work  obtained 
from  the  pupils  as  well  as  their  attitude  toward  the  work,  their 
ideals,  standards  and  general  conceptions  of  it.  Corrections,  gen- 
eral and  individual,  may  be  so  made  that  the  majority  come  to 
hate  both  the  work  and  the  teacher;  or  they  may  be  made  in  a 
way  to  stimulate,  to  arouse  interest  in  the  work  and  esprit  de 
corps,  as  well  as  respect  and  regard  for  the  teacher.  The  prin- 
ciple of  learning  by  repetition  of  acts,  discarding  those  that  are 
wrong  and  retaining  in  memory  those  that  are  right,  and  grad- 
ually forming  habits  of  doing  things  in  the  right  way,  is  abso- 
lutely dependent  on  correction.  "The  teacher  must  stamp  out  the 
wrong  ones  and  stamp  in  the  right  ones,"  as  Thorndike  so  tersely 
puts  it.* 

To  be  able  to  correct  at  all,  it  is  of  course  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  the  teacher  to  know  when  correction  is  needed.  He 
must  have  a  clear  idea  of  what  can  be  accepted  and  what  cannot, 
as  well  as  tact  and  judgment  enough  to  know  when  to  correct 
and  when  to  refrain  from  doing  so.  What,  when  and  how  to 
correct  depends  on  circumstances  and  conditions  to  some  extent 
and  also  on  the  objects  and  aims  of  the  work  under  any  given 
conditions.  It  would  make  a  great  deal  of  difference,  for  ex- 
ample, whether  the  class  is  that  of  a  mother's  club  in  a  Settlement, 
of  second  grade  children  in  a  public  school,  or  boarding  school 
girls  between  the  ages  of  fourteen  and  eighteen.  It  must  always 
be  borne  in  mind  that  the  standards  we  set  ourselves  are  relative 
in  this,  as  in  most  respects. 

While  having  in  his  mind  a  definite  and  high,  but  reasonable, 
standard  of  the  work,  based  on  his  conception  of  its  purpose, 


E.  L.  Thorndike,  "Notes  on  Child  Study." 


CORRECTION  67 

scope  and  adaptation  to  given  conditions,  the  teacher  must  use 
constant  judgment  and  discrimination  in  correcting.  For  if  his 
standards  are  high  and  his  observation  keen,  he  will  find  a  great 
deal  to  correct,  especially  in  the  beginning  or  when  giving  a  new 
and  difficult  exercise.  The  important  things,  the  main  essentials, 
should  receive  attention  first,  and  finer  details  be  left  for  another 
occasion,  when  by  practice  and  repetition  the  class  has  learned 
to  do  the  exercise  in  a  way  that  insures  the'  accomplishment  of 
its  main  objects.  For  example,  when  posture  and  general  motor 
training  are  of  prime  importance,  the  position  of  head,  chest, 
shoulders,  lower  back  and  often  of  the  arms,  the  inclination  of 
the  body,  etc.,  should  be  corrected  first,  and  minor  details,  such 
as  the  position  of  fingers,  wrists,  feet,  etc.,  later.  When  the 
immediate  organic  effects  are  aimed  at  primarily,  the  vigor  and 
magnitude  of  the  movement,  its  rhythmic  swing  and  continuity, 
will  form  the  main  theme  for  correction  or  rather  for  stimulating 
admonitions.  Other  details  are  then  of  secondary  importance. 

Keen  power  of  observation,  natural  and  trained,  is  a  necessary 
qualification  in  teaching  and  should  be  cultivated  and  striven  for. 
On  the  teacher's  ability  to  see  errors  depend  both  the  quality  of 
the  work  and  the  discipline.  Accepting  slovenly  or  faulty  work 
at  once  lowers  the  standard  of  excellence  which  the  class  feels 
the  teacher  demands,  and  less  effort  will  be  made  to  approach 
perfection.  If  faults  are  riot  seen,  the  pupils  may  either  think 
that  they  are  doing  the  exercises  satisfactorily ;  or,  as  often  hap- 
pens, especially  with  children  (if  they  know  that  they  are  not 
doing  things  correctly),  they  form  a  poor  opinion  of  the  teacher's 
power  of  observation,  think  he  is  "easy,"  and  will  promptly  take 
advantage.  The  teacher  should  try  to  notice  everything — rhythm, 
exactness  and  vigor  of  execution,  promptness  and  unison  of  re- 
sponse— and  in  some  way  let  the  class  know  whether  satisfac- 
tory or  not.  By  timely  comment  and  individual  correction  every 
pupil  is  thus  made  to  feel  that  he  is  observed,  that  nothing  escapes 
the  teacher's  notice.  It  is  well  to  make  a  practice  of  systematic 
scanning  or  inspection  of  each  line  or  portion  of  the  class  during 
the  execution  of  every  movement.  In  time  such  systematic  obser- 
vation will  become  habitual. 

To  facilitate  systematic  observation,  the  position  of  the  teacher 
relative  to  the  class  and  the  distribution  and  formation  of  the 
class  on  the  floor  should  be  given  careful  consideration.  (This 
has  already  been  discussed  in  a  previous  chapter.)  For  example, 
a  faulty  forward  bending  is  very  readily  seen  if  the  class  is  in  a 
rank  (front)  formation  and  the  teacher  views  it  from  the  end 
of  each  rank ;  an  oblique  charge  is  perhaps  best  observed  from  a 
file  (flank)  formation,  the  teacher  again  viewing  it  from  one  end, 
preferably  facing  the  class. 


€8  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Causes  of  Faults.  The  method  and  manner  of  correcting,  as 
well  as  the  amount  and  kind  of  correction,  will  vary  with  the 
nature  and  causes  of  the  faults  and  shortcomings.  It  is,  there- 
fore, necessary  that  the  teacher  be  able  to  judge  or  ascertain 
surely  and  quickly  such  causes.  The  following  are  some  of  the 
more  important : 

1.  Insufficient,  unclear  or  faulty  instruction  and  demonstra- 
tion.    This  is  a  not  uncommon  occurrence,  even  among  good 
teachers.     Especially  is  this  true  as  regards  demonstration.     A 
teacher  may  not  be  aware  of  habitual  slackness  in  this  respect 
unless  somebody  calls  his  attention  to  it.     It  may  put  him  in  an 
embarrassing  position  before  the  class,  if  he  finds  it  out  at  the 
time,  especially  if  he  has  reproved  the  class  for  not  doing  the 
exercise  correctly.    If  he  remains  unaware  of  the  fact,  the  class, 
or  some  of  its  members,  may  misconstrue  his  criticisms  or  doubt 
his  sense  of  justice.    One  can  never  be  absolutely  sure  of  perfec- 
tion and  therefore  it  is  wise  occasionally  to  admit  to  the  class 
that  the  exercise  as  demonstrated  may  not  be  correct  in  every 
particular. 

2.  The  instruction  and  demonstration  may  have  been  correct, 
sufficient  and  clear  to  the  majority,  but  some  may  not  have  seen, 
heard  or  understood  everything.     These  may,  therefore,  have  a 
wrong  picture  of  the  exercise  in  their  minds  and  execute  it  in  a 
faulty  manner.     It  is  wise  for  the  teacher  to  assume  this  to  be 
the  case  nearly  always,  particularly  when  not  absolutely  sure  of 
the  cause.     It  gives  the  individual  (or  class)  the  benefit  of  the 
doubt  and  is  not  likely  to  produce  resentment,  because  it  implies 
that  perhaps  the  teacher  was  at  fault.     The  same  principle  may 
be  applied  in  a  broad  way  to  all  kinds  of  correction — individual 
and  general ;  in  class  and  out  of  class.     It  is  a  good  mental  atti- 
tude, conducive  to  friendly  relations. 

3.  Again,  faults  may  be  due  to  actual  inability  on  the  part  of 
a  class  or  individuals.     Such  inability  may  be  dependent  upon 
lack  of  coordination.    This  is  the  most  common.     If  this  applies 
to   great  numbers,   simpler  work   rather   than   much   correction 
may  be  the  best  course.     Structural  defects  and  peculiarities  are 
often  causes  of  poor  work,  e.g.,  tightness  around  the  shoulders,- 
pronounced  round  or  hollow  back,  lateral  deviations  of  the  spine, 
flat  or  otherwise  deformed  chest,  shortness  of  hamstring  muscles, 
etc.     In  such  cases  special  work  as  well  as  encouragement  and 
stimulation  may  be  helpful.    Not  infrequently  a  faulty  execution 
may  be  due  to  some  temporary  disability,  as  lame  ankle,  knee  or 
shoulder;  or  to  general  fatigue,  malaise  or  poor  condition.    The 
teacher  must  be  quick  to  notice  signs  which  point  to  any  one  of 
these  possibilities,  so  as  to  avoid  being  unjust.    Of  course,  pupils 


CORRECTION  69 

may  have  some  little  thing  the  matter  with  them  and  for  reasons 
of  their  own  try  to  make  the  most  of  such  disability.  Then  the 
teacher's  judgment  and  resourcefulness  must  determine  the  best 
way  to  deal  with  the  case.  But  be  charitable  when  judging 
doubtful  cases. 

4.  Inattention  may  be  and  often  is  the  cause  of  faulty  or 
slovenly  execution.    When  sure  of  it  the  teacher  should  show  that 
he  is  aware  of  the  fact  by  disapproval  of  some  kind.     But  if  not 
sure,  be  slow  to  assume  it.    Rather  put  it  down  as  being  a  case  of 
failure  to  understand.    Find  out  if  the  pupil's  hearing  is  good. 

5.  Mischievousness.     The  same  applies  to  this  as  to  the  pre- 
ceding.    If  you  have  a  clear  case,  it  may  be  wise  to  deal  with  it 
peremptorily,  even  if  the  offense  is  relatively  small.    "Nip  things 
in  the  bud"  is  always  a  good  rule  in  preserving  discipline. 

Summary  of  methods  of  correcting. 

I.     General  corrections  (addressed  to  the  class  as  a  whole). 

1.  The  presentation,  as  already  suggested,  may  well  include 
warnings  against  the  faults  which  are  most  likely  to  occur.     Do 
not,  however,  unduly  emphasize  or  dwell  too  much  on  possible 
faults.     Rather  make  any  such  warning  serve  as  the  shading  or 
contrast  by  which  the  positive  parts  of  instruction,  the  essential 
points  in  the  picture,  are  made  more  vivid. 

2.  A  warning  admonition  may  be  given  as  a  part  of  the  pre- 
paratory command,  e.g.,  "Without  letting  the  head  (and  elbows) 
droop:  Trunk  forward — bend!"     This,  so  far  from  suggesting 
the  fault,  puts  the  pupils  on  their  mettle  to  avoid  it. 

3.  Admonitions  of  a  corrective  character  may  be  given  during 
the  exercise.     This  form  of  correction  is  particularly  useful  in 
continuous,  rhythmical  movements.     The  teacher  may  increase 
the  effectiveness  of  such  admonitions  by  doing  the  exercise  with 
the  class  in  an  energetic  manner,  even  exaggerating  the  correct- 
ness and  vigor  of  the  execution,  if  that  were  possible.     In  this 
way  he  can  throw  a  great  deal  of  suggestion  into  his  admonitions. 
Here  also  it  may  be  wise  to  illustrate  the  fault,  by  way  of  helping 
the  understanding  of  the  class. 

4.  General  corrections  and  admonitions  may  be  given  while 
a  gymnastic  position  is  being  held.    This  applies  especially  when 
doing   single    movements    on    command.      This   method    should 
always  be  tried  before  resorting  to  individual  correction. 

5.  Stopping  a  rhythmical  movement  and  giving  the  class  "In 
place  rest,"  then  reillustrating  and  reexplaining  the  movement, 
making  admonitions   more   emphatic   and   demonstrations   more 
careful  than  the  first  time. 


70  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

6.  Recalling  a  compound  movement  before  the  completion  of 
the  first  cycle,  if  the  teacher  judges  that  it  is  too  difficult  for  the 
average  ability  of  the  class,  and,  after  making  the  necessary  ex- 
planations and  admonitions,  beginning  all  over,  or  giving  only 
a  part  of  it,  or  substituting  something  else  less  difficult. 

II.     Individual  Correction: 

1.  By  admonitions  while  the  movement  is  being  done,  or  while 
the  position  is  being  held.     The  attention  of  the  individual  may 
be  secured  by  naming  him,  if  necessary,  or  by  catching  his  eye 
and  then  by  look  or  gesture,  etc.,  making  it  clear  that  the  admo- 
nition is  directed  to  him. 

2.  By  assistance  and  manual  correction  during  the  exercise. 
This  is  often  a  delicate  matter,  but  is  seldom   resented  when 
accompanied  by  admonitions  in  an  undertone,  given  in  a  decidedly 
friendly  manner,  making  it  clear  that  you  are  simply  trying  to 
help  the  pupil.     If  the  teacher  has  the  right  mental  attitude  the 
pupils  generally  appreciate  such  efforts  rather  than  the  reverse. 
They  are  keen  to  judge  this  attitude,  however,  and  if  the  teacher's 
manner  while  thus  correcting  is  peremptory — suggestive  of  bossi- 
ness  or  impatience — or  if  the  manipulations  are  at  all  rough,  they 
will  show  their  resentment  in  one  way  or  another.     Such  failure 
of  appreciation  may  be  expressed  by  resisting,  or  by  doing  worse 
than  before,  or  by  making  no  effort  at  all,  or  by  discontinuing  the 
movement  and  perhaps  looking  annoyed  and  even  resentful. 

3.  By  showing  and  explaining  after  the  class  has  finished  the 
movement,  so  that  the  individual  will  be  able  to  do  better  next 
time. 

4.  By  stopping  the  class  and  giving  "In  place  rest"  while  help- 
ing the  individual,  then  letting  the  class  continue  the  movement. 
This  procedure  is  not  very  advisable.    The  teacher  must  be  sure 
of  his  class,  for  interruptions  of  this  kind  are  apt  to  lead  to  slack- 
ened attention  and  loss  of  interest.     Do  not  resort  to  this  expe- 
dient often,  and  always  be  as  quick  as  possible  about  it. 

5.  By  helping  an  individual  after  class,  especially  if  the  gen- 
eral quality  of  his  work  is  unsatisfactory.    The  teacher  can  then 
ascertain  the  causes  of  poor  work  by  careful  questioning  and,  if 
dependent  on  wrong  mental  attitude  toward  the  work,  can  set 
this  right  by  speaking  to  him  in  a  way  to  make  him  understand 
the  purpose  and  catch  the  spirit  of  the  work. 

General  corrections  and  admonitions  are  to  be  used  in  prefer- 
ence to  individual,  even  when  only  a  few  are  at  fault.  In  that 
case  try  to  make  the  individuals  in  question  know  that  the  admo- 
nitions are  intended  for  them. 


CORRECTION  71 

When  a  considerable  number  do  the  exercise  in  a  faulty  manner, 
stop  the  movement,  give  "In  place  rest,"  redescribe  and  illus- 
trate both  the  correct  and  faulty  way  of  doing  it. 

When  making  individual  and  especially  manual  corrections,  do 
not  forget  the  class.  If  a  gymnastic  position  is  being  held  many 
pupils  will  become  too  tired  to  maintain  it  (or  simply  take  advan- 
tage of  the  teacher's  momentary  "absence"),  and  all  are  liable 
to  relax  somewhat  if  the  position  is  held  too  long.  There  will 
then  be  more  and  more  to  correct.  Rather  make  rapid  correction 
of  a  few,  let  the  class  return  to  the  fundamental  position,  then 
repeat  the  same  exercise  and  correct  a  few  more.  If  the  class 
is  doing  a  continuous  movement,  keep  an  eye  (and  ear)  on  the 
class  while  assisting  individuals.  From  time  to  time  give  a  gen- 
eral admonition,  steady  the  rhythm  by  counting  through  a  few 
movements,  etc.,  then  resume  work  with  the  individual.  Too 
much  should  not  be  attempted  in  this  direction,  however,  both 
on  account  of  the  difficulty  to  make  clear  (quickly)  to  the  indi- 
vidual what  you  want,  and  because  of  the  liability  to  forget  the 
class.  Sometimes  it  may  be  wise  to  let  the  individual  stop,  then 
put  him  through  the  exercise  slowly  once  or  twice,  the  class  in 
the  meanwhile  keeping  on.  But  this  is  nsky  unless  the  class  is 
exceptionally  reliable  and  well  trained. 

The  technique  of  manual  correction.  How  to  take  hold  of  a 
pupil  and  by  pressure  and  counter-pressure,  assistance  and  resist- 
ance, put  him  in  the  right  position  or  guide  him  in  the  execution 
of  the  movement  is  quite  an  art  in  itself  and  must,  in  the  main, 
be  acquired  by  experience.  In  each  movement  and  position 
various  faults  are  likely  to  occur,  and  each  requires  its  own 
method  of  manual  correction.  A  few  general  principles  may 
perhaps  be  stated  and  the  "holds"  in  some  of  the  more  common 
types  of  movements  and  positions  described. 

As  a  rule  stand  behind  or  on  one  side  of  the  pupil,  rarely,  if 
ever,  in  front.  When  approaching  from  behind,  make  a  point  of 
speaking  to  the  pupil  before  touching  him.  Give  some  admonition, 
make  some  comment  or  simply  say,  "Let  me  help  you  get  this 
right."  Whatever  form  such  warning  may  take,  be  sure  to  make 
the  pupil  feel  that  the  purpose  of  the  manipulation  is  to  help  him. 
If  the  teacher  really  has  a  friendly  mental  attitude  and  goes 
about  it  in  a  brisk  and  business-like  manner,  manual  corrections 
will  rarely  be  resented. 

When  trying  to  correct  one  fault,  be  careful  that  the  necessary 
yielding  and  adjustment  of  one  part  of  the  body — as  arms,  head, 
knee,  foot — do  not  induce  a  faulty  position  or  an  undesirable 
movement  in  another  part,  or  disturb  the  body  equilibrium. 

Use  a  firm  and  steady  touch,  not  too  sudden  and  never  with 
such  force  as  to  suggest  roughness.  Avoid  touching  the  pupil's 


72  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

face,  but  if  necessary — as  in  correcting  a  forward  position  of  the 
head — use  the  finger  tips  only. 

When  the  pupils'  arms  and  shoulders  are  bare  refrain  from 
manual  correction  if  the  hands  are  very  cold.  Wait  until  they 
are  warmed  up  by  exercise  and  friction. 

Do  not  persist  in  the  use  of  manual  correction  if  a  pupil  is 
excessively  ticklish.  It  only  makes  matters  worse. 

Be  careful  not  to  mistake  natural  limitation  of  mobility  for 
resistance  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  In  general,  do  not  resort  to 
manual  correction  until  other  means  have  been  tried  and  found 
unavailing. 

\Yhen  trying  to  put  a  pupil  in  correct  position  the  teacher  may 
find  that  two  hands  are  not  enough.  To  steady  the  pupil  and 
localize  the  movement  properly  by  pressure  and  counter-pressure, 
he  may  have  to  use  his  elbows,  shoulders,  head,  chest,  hip,  knee 
and  even  foot.  The  following  methods  of  manual  correction  of 
common  faults  in  a  few  representative  types  of  exercises  have 
proved  effective  and  may  serve  as  illustrations. 

When  doing  an  arm  stretching  or  flinging  upward,  pupils  often 
fail  to  bring  the  arms  far  enough  back.  To  assist  them  in  reach- 
ing the  correct  final  position  the  teacher  should  stand  on  the 
pupil's  left  (or  right)  side  and  a  little  behind';  the  left  forearm 
is  then  placed  across  the  pupil's  arm  in  front  and  presses  back- 
ward, while  the  right  hand  is  placed  between  the  pupil's  shoulder- 
blades  and  presses  forward. 

To  correct  the  position  reached  by  placing  the  hands  behind 
the  neck,  the  teacher,  standing  behind  the  pupil,  grasps  the  latter's 
elbows  and  pulls  backward,  at  the  same  time  exerting  counter- 
pressure  by  gently  pressing  his  own  elbow  or  chest  against  the 
pupil's  shoulder-blades. 

The  same  procedure  may  be  used  in  correcting  the  position 
reached  by  forward  bending  of  arms,  or  arm  raising  sideways. 

When  a  forward  position  of  the  head  accompanies  a  faulty 
position  of  the  arms  in  the  above  movements,  the  teacher  stands 
at  one  side  of  the  pupil  (left),  his  left  hand  grasping  the  pupil's 
right  elbow  (or  arm)  from  the  front,  his  left  arm  or  forearm 
pressing  the  pupil's  chin  backward,  his  left  shoulder  or  chest  (or 
his  head)  pressing  the  pupil's  left  elbow  (or  arm)  backward, 
while  his  right  elbow  and  hand  exert  counter-pressure  against 
the  pupil's  shoulder-blades  and  occiput. 

To  correct  a  faulty  position  of  head  only,  with  chin  protruding, 
place  the  finger  tips  of  one  hand  on  the  pupil's  chin,  pressing 
firmly  backward  and  upward,  while  steadying  the  pupil's  head 
with  the  other  hand  placed  on  the  occiput. 

Side  bending  of  trunk  with  the  hands  on  hips  or  behind  neck, 
overhead  or  in  one  of  the  cross  positions  (side  horizontal)  is  often 


CORRECTION  73 

executed  with  a  rounded  back  and  forward  positions  of  arms  and 
shoulders,  a  bend  at  the  hips  or  twist  in  the  body.  Whether  one 
or  several  or  all  of  these  faults  are  present,  the  movement  may 
be  corrected  by  grasping  the  arms  or  shoulders  from  behind  and 
pulling  backward  (or  twisting,  as  the  case  may  be),  while  the 
pupil's  equilibrium  is  steadied  by  the  opposition  of  the  teacher's 
chest  or  hip. 

A  faulty  forward  bending  of  trunk  (with  the  arms  in  any  of 
the  high  positions)  is  corrected  from  the  side,  the  teacher  stoop- 
ing down  and  placing  one  arm  in  front  of  the  pupil's  arms  or 
shoulders,  the  other  on  the  pupil's  shoulder-blades,  in  a  way 
similar  to  that  described  for  correction  of  faulty  position  of  the 
arms. 

An  oblique  charge  requires  the  same  method  as  far  as  the 
position  of  the  back  and  arms  is  concerned.  Insufficient  bend 
and  forward  position  of  the  advanced  knee  of  the  pupil  as  well 
as  unduly  arched  back  require  a  stronger  forward  and  downward 
pressure  by  the  teacher's  hand  on  pupil's  shoulder-blades,  while 
the  teacher's  knee  forces  the  pupil's  knee  out  into  the  correct 
position.  The  teacher  may  even  find  it  necessary  to  use  his  foot 
in  pushing  the  pupil's  foot  to  the  proper  position. 

The  leaning  forward  so  common  in  knee  bending  may  be  cor- 
rected by  the  teacher  taking  hold  of  the  pupil's  shoulders  (or 
arms)  from  behind  and  pulling  him  backward  against  his  hip 
and  thigh,  then  releasing  his  hold  gradually  as  the  pupil  becomes 
accustomed  to  "leaning  backward"  and  his  sudden,  exaggerated 
efforts  to  steady  himself  are  replaced  by  more  moderate  and 
better  coordinated  contractions. 

Excessively  hollow  back,  whether  it  is  the  habitual  posture,  or 
is  associated  (as  is  only  too  often  the  case)  with  gymnastic  move- 
ments and  positions  calling  for  vigorous  contraction  of  the  upper 
back  and  shoulder-blade  muscles,  is  very  difficult  to  correct  by 
any  means  whatever.  The  following  method  has  been  found 
helpful  when  accompanied  by  admonitions  to  retract  the  abdo- 
men and  push  the  hips  forward.  The  teacher,  standing  on  one 
side  of  the  pupil,  places  one  hand  on  the  pupil's  abdomen,  the 
other  on  the  pupil's  sacral  region,  and  his  head  behind  the  pupil's 
shoulder-blades.  By  pressure  and  counter-pressure  at  these  three 
points  the  pupil  may  be  helped  or  gently  forced  into  the  correct 
position.  It  may  be  necessary  at  first  to  ask  the  pupil  to  relax 
all  his  back  muscles.  This  usually  leads  to  a  rounding  of  the 
upper  back  and  a  collapse  of  the  chest  and  shoulders.  But  by 
careful  muscular  efforts  erect  posture  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  may  be  regained,  while  a  relatively  straightened  position  in 
the  lower  back  is  retained.  If  the  first  attempt  fails,  try  it  again. 


74  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

By  repeated  attempts  with  assistance  the  pupil  will  gradually 
learn  to  localize  his  muscular  efforts  to  the  upper  part  of  the 
back  and  the  abdominal  region  and  in  time  be  able  to  assume  the 
correct  position  without  assistance. 


7.     REVIEW  AND  SUMMARY  OF  METHODS  OF  TEACHING 
DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  WORK. 

In  discussing  the  various  phases  of  teaching  from  a  technical 
standpoint  frequent  reference  has  been  made  to  the  necessary 
modifications  and  variations  of  method  according  to  the  style 
of  work  taught,  the  objects  aimed  at  and  the  conditions  under 
which  the  work  is  carried  on.  With  style  of  work  is  meant  the 
general  character  of  the  exercises,  such  as  their  relative  simplicity 
or  complexity — the  number  and  kind  of  elementary  movements 
of  which  they  are  composed,  the  kind  of  combination,  the  sequence 
and  alternation  of  these  elements — the  amplitude,  speed,  power, 
rhythm,  etc.,  of  the  exercises;  the  relative  emphasis  on  sustained 
position  or  on  continuity  of  movement. 

While  no  sharp  lines  of  differentiation  can  be  drawn,  it  may 
simplify  discussion  to  refer  all  exercises  to  one  of  two  types : 
indefinite  and  definite.  These  terms  are  admittedly  inadequate, 
for  while  retaining  their  ordinary  connotation  they  are  also  used 
here  to  express  a  number  of  differences  in  character  and  quality 
of  gymnastic  exercises.  Such  differences  of  quality  are  often 
relative  and  partial  and  are  not  necessarily  inherent  in  the 
exercise.  The  same  exercise  may  approach  one  type  or  the  other 
at  different  times  according  to  the  way  it  is  defined  and  executed. 
Again  many  exercises  have  some  characteristics  of  each  type. 

1.  Exercises  of  the  indefinite  type  are  relatively  complex, 
widely  distributed  movements,  not  readily  capable  of  sharp  defini- 
tion or  standardization ;  their  various  elements  are  so  blended  and 
interdependent  that  the  exercises  cannot  easily  or  to  any  great 
extent  be  divided  into  component  parts  without  destroying  or  at 
least  changing  their  character.  They  are  usually  continuous,  i.e., 
the  movements  are  repeated  in  rhythmic  alternation  and  sequence, 
not  separated  by  sustained  positions.  The  momentum  or  recoil 
of  one  movement  gives  the  impetus  for  the  next,  or  one  move- 
ment begins  before  the  preceding  is  completed.  Typical  examples 
are  walking,  running,  jumping,  throwing;  rocking,  swaying  or 
undulating  movements.  Such  exercises  may  approach  the  danc- 
ing type,  being  then  usually  of  moderate  range  and  speed,  the 
movements  flowing  smoothly  one  into  the  other.  Or  they  may 
be  oscillatory  movements — swinging,  thrusting,  revolving  or  cir- 
cling— of  considerable  amplitude,  speed  and  power,  such  as  con- 


TEACHING  DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  WORK  75 

tinuous  large  arm  swings  or  circles;  quick  arm  bendings  "and 
stretchings ;  some  forms  of  knee  upward  bendings  and  leg  fling- 
ings  ;  circumduction  of  trunk,  "chopping,"  "paddling"  and  similar 
mimetic  exercises ;  combined  stooping  and  trunk  twisting  or  bend- 
ing with  or  without  arm  movements,  etc. 

Many  such  partly  or  wholly  "indefinite"  movements  are  ex- 
tremely useful  and  valuable  exercises.  For  in  the  first  place 
their  complexity  usually  implies  wide  distribution  of  muscular 
work.  If  executed  vigorously  they  represent  large  total  quantity 
of  muscular  contraction  without  too  great  local  fatigue.  They 
are  correspondingly  effective  in  stimulating  the  circulatory,  res- 
piratory, digestive  and  excretory  organs  as  well  as  all  parts  of 
the  heat-regulating  mechanism — production  as  well  as  elimina- 
tion— with  all  that  this  implies.  The  fact  that  such  exercises 
are  usually  done  with  rhythmic  continuity  emphasizes  their  gen- 
eral organic  effects.  If  the  repetitions  are  numerous  and  little  or 
no  rest  is  given  between  the  exercises — as  in  memorized  drills — 
there  may  result  considerable  gain  in  endurance.  If  the  exercises 
are  quick  rather  than  powerful,  increased  capacity  for  speed  of 
muscular  action  will  undoubtedly  be  gained.  Nor  can  any  kind 
of  consciously  executed  movement  be  practiced  persistently  with- 
out yielding  some  result  in  the  way  of  subjective  motor  control. 
Many  "indefinite"  or  "semi-indefinite"  types  may  be  of  consider- 
able value  in  this  respect  by  demanding  frequent  changes  of 
weight  distribution,  by  offering  difficulty  of  balance,  of  sequence 
and  alternation.  Most  of  their  values,  however,  depend  on  wide 
distribution,  numerous  rhythmic  repetitions  and  continuity  of  the 
muscular  work.  Some  of  them  depend  on  the  fact  that  practically 
every  specified  movement  consciously  performed  is  at  least  to 
some  degree  "definite"  and  to  that  extent  demands  and  cultivates 
discrimination  and  volitional  motor  control. 

The  methods  and  technique  of  teaching  the  indefinite  type  of 
exercises  are  on  the  whole  comparatively  simple.  The  demonstra- 
tion and  the  direct  imitation  methods,  or  combinations  of  these, 
are  generally  used.  In  the  former  case  demonstration  of  the 
whole  exercise,  supplemented  or  not  with  explanations  and  direc- 
tions for  execution  and  rhythm,  is  followed  by  a  preparatory 
"Ready"  or  "All  together"  and  the  movement  is  started,  either  by 
such  a  command  as  "Begin!"  "Go!"  "Start!"  "Now!"  or  without 
any  final  command,  a  movement  of  some  kind  by  the  teacher,  or 
the  beginning  of  the  music,  taking  its  place.  Whenever  necessary 
and  feasible,  complex  exercises  are  of  course  divided  as  far  as 
possible,  the  component  parts  practiced  separately,  then  put 
together  and  the  whole  executed  as  a  compound  movement. 

During  the  progress  of  such  a  rhythmical  movement  the  teacher 
can,  if  he  wishes,  give  supplementary  instruction  and  more  detailed 


76  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

directions.  These  usually  take  the  form  of  general,  stimulating 
admonitions,  exhortation  for  greater  speed,  more  vigor  and  snap, 
faster  rhythm ;  sometimes  they  are  intended  to  produce  greater 
precision  and  better  unison.  They  are  then  occasionally  in  the 
nature  of  criticism  and  correction.  Quite  often,  however,  the 
teacher  merely  marks  the  time  by  counting  and  depends  for 
stimulation  and  suggestion  on  the  tone  of  his  voice,  his  animated 
manner  and  his  example  in  the  vigorous  and  correct  execution 
of  the  exercise. 

After  a  customary  number  of  repetitions,  as  indicated  by  the 
count  or  by  the  music,  the  class  usually  of  its  own  accord  dis- 
continues the  movement.  A  command  such  as  "Hold!"  or  "Halt!" 
or  "Stop!"  may  or  may  not  be  given  in  place  of  the  last  count. 
Though  not  necessary,  it  is  usually  best  to  do  so.  If  the  teacher 
wishes  further  repetitions  he  may  substitute  the  words  "Again" 
or  "Once  more"  for  the  command  to  stop,  also  given  in  place 
of  the  last  count  or  two.  Or  he  may  start  the  next  exercise  in 
the  same  way,  by  naming  it,  with  or  without  a  cue,  or  by  a  cue 
alone,  providing  the  class  is  familiar  with  the  exercise.  In  this 
way  a  long  series  of  movements  and  numerous  repetitions  may  be 
done  without  any  break  of  continuity,  and  marked  organic  effects 
may  be  obtained. 

The  direct  imitation  method  differs  from  the  preceding  chiefly 
in  the  presentation  and  starting  of  the  exercise.  Instead  of 
demonstrating  the  exercise  as  a  whole  while  the  class  is  standing 
still  and  observant  trying  to  retain  or  reconstruct  a  mental  picture 
of  the  exercise,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other  method,  the  class  here 
follows  immediately  and  as  -closely  as  possible  each  movement 
of  the  teacher.  At  first  there  is  usually  some  uncertainty  and 
not  much  unison,  while  the  rhythm  is  slow  and  not  very  true. 
But  with  each  repetition  there  is  gradual  improvement  in  these 
respects,  until  the  movement  is  progressing  smoothly  with  what- 
ever rhythm  the  teacher  desires.  In  this  method  music  is  of 
great  assistance  in  securing  unison  and  keeping  the  rhythm.  It 
curtails  the  teacher's  resources  in  other  respects,  however,  espe- 
cially in  the  effective  use  of  his  voice  for  purposes  of  stimulation 
and  correction.  In  so  far  as  some  (and  perhaps  it  would  be  fair 
to  say  many)  of  the  teacher's  duties  and  opportunities  are  dele- 
gated to  the  music,  it  becomes  necessary  to  see  that  the  right  kind 
of  music  is  furnished,  so  that  the  character  of  the  work  may  be 
what  the  teacher  intends.  This  can  be  done,  but  it  is  not  always 
the  case.  Not  infrequently  the  method  of  teaching,  the  selection 
and  arrangement  of  the  exercises  and  the  character  of  the  music 
are  such  as  to  make  the  work  resemble  dancing.  It  is  then  usually 
intended  mainly  to  furnish  gentle  and  pleasant  exercise,  without 


TEACHING  DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  WORK  77 

too  much  stimulation  and  expenditure  of  nervous  energy,  and 
undoubtedly  serves  this  purpose  very  well.  The  method  is  also 
suitable  for  teaching  young  children. 

2.  The  definite  type  of  exercises  and  the  effects  or  values  for 
which  they  are  practiced  have  been  discussed  at  length  in  the 
introductory  chapter.  Briefly  restated,  they  are  clean-cut,  sharply 
defined,  localized  movements,  relatively  simple  or  capable  of 
subdivision  into  simple  elements.  Each  element  usually  employs 
the  full  range  of  one  kind  of  motion  in  one  or  only  a  few  joints 
and  therefore  maximal,  localized  contraction  of  circumscribed 
muscular  groups,  with  corresponding  stretching  of  opposing 
muscular  and  fibrous  structures.  At  the  same  time  large  muscular 
areas  are  kept  in  static  contraction  in  order  to  keep  other  parts 
of  the  body  from  moving.  Thus  there  is  both  localization  and 
wide  distribution  of  muscular  action,  the  apparent  contradiction 
implying  that  the  action  is  of  different  kind:  concentric  (shorten- 
ing) in  the  former  case,  static  and  eccentric  (lengthening  while 
offering  resistance)  in  the  latter.  Herein  lies  perhaps  the  chief 
difference,  physiologically,  between  the  definite  and  indefinite 
types  of  exercises.  In  the  latter  the  muscular  action,  while  widely 
distributed,  is  of  the  same  kind :  large  systems  of  closely  allied 
muscle  groups  being  allowed  to  contract  and  shorten  in  accord- 
ance with  their  natural  or  habitual  modes  of  association,  thus 
causing  moderate  movement  of  many  segments  rather  than 
extensive  movement  of  a  few.  In  the  definite  exercises  the  local- 
ization is  always  of  such  a  character  as  to  cultivate  mobility  of 
a  kind  and  in  directions  more  or  less  neglected  in  the  ordinary 
activities  of  daily  life.  Similarly  the  muscular  action  is  such 
as  to  increase  localized  muscular  control  everywhere  and  espe- 
cially of  those  muscular  groups  responsible  for  good  posture — the 
upper  back  and  shoulder-blade  muscles,  those  of  the  abdominal 
wall  and  the  hip  joint  extensors.  With  increased  control  of 
these  muscular  groups,  definite  exercises  also  aim  to  increase 
their  tone — habitual  state  of  contraction — as  well  as  their  endur- 
ance. At  the  same  time  such  exercises  aim  to  stretch  and  increase 
the  power  of  localized  relaxation  (if  such  a  term  may  be  per- 
mitted) of  the  opposing  muscular  groups — the  upper  chest  and 
lower  back  muscles.  It  is  on  the  ability  to  contract  the  upper 
back  and  posterior  scapular  muscles  without  much  associated 
contraction  of  the  lower  back  muscles  that  good  posture  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  body,  without  excessive  "hollow  back,"  depends. 
This  is  true  both  in  the  practice  of  gymnastic  exercises  and  in 
the  habitual  carriage  while  sitting,  standing,  walking  or  moving 
about  in  a  natural  way.  In  the  latter  case  good  posture  is  main- 
tained by  the  "tone"  of  the  upper  back  and  abdominal  muscles, 


78  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

in  the  former  by  conscious  contraction  of  these  groups  supple- 
mented by  the  hip  joint  extensors. 

By  their  careful  selection  and  definition,  their  localized  charac- 
ter, their  completeness  of  range  in  movements  and  their  sustained 
muscular  action — local  as  well  as  general — while  positions  are 
being  held,  definite  gymnastic  exercises  aim  to  cultivate  the 
posture  sense  and  the  kinesthetic  sense  generally,  to  increase  the 
power  of  equilibrium,  to  train  habits  of  correct  weight  distribu- 
tion, of  quick  and  accurate  motor  reactions — in  short,  efficient 
motor  habits  and  subjective  motor  control. 

Methods  of  teaching  definite  exercises.  The  presentation  may 
vary  between  the  extremes  of  the  most  elaborate,  complete  and 
even  repeated  demonstration  accompanied  by  detailed  explanation, 
comment,  suggestion,  warnings,  etc.,  on  one  hand,  and  the  mere 
naming  of  the  movement  in  the  preparatory  command,  with  or 
without  a  cue,  on  the  other.  The  degree  of  explicitness  will  de- 
pend on  the  age,  intelligence  and  active  attention  of  the 
pupils,  on  their  familiarity  with  the  work  in  general  and 
with  the  particular  exercise,  as  well  as  on  the  difficulty  of  that 
exercise.  It  will  also  vary  with  the  teacher's  ability,  or  the  lack 
of  it,  to  give  effective  supplementary  instruction  in  the  form  of 
admonitions,  stimulation,  general  and  individual  correction  after 
the  movement  is  in  progress  or  while  positions  are  being  held. 
The  teacher's  judgment  is  the  principal  determining  factor  in  this 
respect  and  this,  too,  will  vary  with  his  temperament,  experience 
and  even  momentary  inclination.  It  is  always  wise  to  make  the 
presentation  as  brief  as  possible  consistent  with  clearness,  and 
rely  for  good  execution  on  supplementary  directions  and  stimula- 
tion after  starting  the  exercise. 

The  most  logical  and  under  certain  (favorable)  conditions  the 
surest  way  to  attain  definiteness  is  to  have  the  class  do  each 
movement  on  the  word  of  command  and  hold  the  position  reached 
an  indefinite  length  of  time.  Either  of  the  two  forms  of  descrip- 
tive commands  may  be  used — the  imperative  of  the  verb  for  each 
part  of  the  exercise,  or  the  present  participle  as  preparatory 
command  for  the  exercise  as  a  whole  and  the  numerals  as  final 
commands  for  the  respective  parts.  Repetitions  are  not  apt  to  be 
numerous  and  should  not  be,  if  the  teacher  is  wise.  The  position 
is  emphasized  rather  than  the  movement.  This  gives  ample 
opportunity  for  correction,  admonition  and  stimulation.  It  is 
preeminently  suited  for,  and  effective  in,  posture  training,  and  to 
bring  out  quick  and  accurate  motor  response.  This  method  and 
its  technique  have  been  brought  to  a  high  state  of  perfection  in 
Swedish  gymnastics,  and  when  skillfully  applied  undoubtedly 
accomplish  in  a  most  effective  manner  most  of  the  objects  for 


TEACHING  DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  WORK  79 

which  gymnastic  work  'stands.  When  unskill fully  applied,  how- 
ever, there  is  apt  to  be  a  lack  of  continuity,  owing  partly  to  unduly 
prolonged  maintenance  of  position,  partly  to  too  lengthy  and  too 
frequently  repeated  descriptive  commands.  Also  there  is  an  ele- 
ment of  uncertainty,  of  high  nervous  tension,  in  doing  single 
movements  on  command,  which,  while  it  may  stimulate  at  first, 
may,  if  long  continued,  lead  to  nervous  fatigue  and  defeat  its 
own  object  by  causing  listlessness.  This  means  poor  response 
and  lack  of  vigor  in  movement  or  position,  or  what  is  really  a 
manifestation  of  the  same  thing,  anticipation  of  the  command 
by  many  members  of  the  class  with  resultant  loss  of  snap  and 
unison.  Such  anticipations,  as  has  already  been  pointed  out  in 
discussing  gymnastic  commands,  occur  if  the  repetitions  are 
numerous  and  follow  each  other  at  uniform  intervals,  approach- 
ing a  rhythm.  Finally,  most  people  have  an  elemental,  instinctive 
appreciation  of  and  desire  for  rhythmic  movement.  This  is  partly 
responsible  for  the  tendency  of  all  classes  to  get  ahead  of  the 
command  when  movements  are  repeated  many  times.  The  lack 
of  opportunity  to  satisfy  this  instinct  makes  the  execution  of 
exercises  on  command  throughout  a  lesson  seem  tedious  to  many 
people.  For  these  reasons  many  teachers  arrange  fcheir  lessons 
in  such  a  way  that  in  one  part  the  exercises  are  of  the  definite, 
localized,  so  called  "corrective"  type,  done  on  command ;  while 
in  the  other  parts  of  the  lesson  more  indefinite,  complex,  rhyth- 
mical exercises  are  given,  in  which  there  is  more  continuity  of 
movement,  wider  distribution  of  muscular  action,  no  distinct 
holding  of  position  and  less  attention  paid  to  posture  or  other 
details. 

Rhythm  and  definiteness.  Now,  if  this  element  of  definiteness 
is  essential  for  effectiveness  in  certain  directions,  and  rhythmical 
continuity  for  effectiveness  in  other  directions,  why  may  not 
these  features  be  combined  and  both  kinds  of  effects  be  obtained 
to  a  high  and  approximately  equal  degree  from  a  majority  of 
the  exercises  in  the  lesson?  Why  may  not  the  bulk  of  the 
material  be  so  selected,  arranged  and  taught,  that  either  feature 
may  be  emphasized  at  various  times,  or  both  may  be  attained  at 
the  same  time  in  a  measure  sufficient  to  insure  the  effectiveness 
of  each?  This  would  remove  most  of  the  objections  to  or  short- 
comings of  either  style  of  work  and  satisfy  all  demands.  It  would 
give  greater  elasticity  or  latitude  in  efforts  to  adapt  the  work  to 
varying  conditions  and  groups. 

It  is  submitted  that  gymnastic  material  can  be  managed  in  a 
way  to  do  all  this.  That  it  would  be  possible,  for  example,  to 
arrange  a  series  of  lessons  at  the  beginning  of  which  all  the 
exercises  are  of  the  indefinite,  rhythmical  type,  not  calling  for 


80  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

much  exactness  in  execution  nor  sustained  positions,  but  having 
sufficient  "swing  and  go"  to  interest  a  class  at  once  and  to  produce 
the  organic  effects  and  the  exhilaration  of  vigorous  exercise  that 
all  classes  appreciate.  The  element  of  definiteness  could  then 
be  introduced  gradually  by  modifying  the  exercises  originally 
used  so  that  they  can  be  subdivided  and  practiced  with  more 
accuracy  of  detail.  Or  simpler  types  may  be  substituted  from 
time  to  time,  until,  at  the  other  end  of  the  series,  the  majority 
of  the  exercises  would  be  capable  of  execution  on  command  or 
in  rhythm  as  might  be  desired.  This  transition  might  be  made 
so  gradual  that  at  no  time  need  there  be  any  more  loss  of  con- 
tinuity than  might  naturally  be  expected  in  teaching  any  new 
exercises,  even  those  of  purely  rhythmical  and  indefinite  type. 
But  the  character  of  the  rhythm  and  of  the  execution  of  the 
rhythmical  movements  will  be  changed.  Instead  of  more  or  less 
even  uniform  rhythm  and  blended  or  oscillatory  movements,  there 
will  be  many  kinds  of  rhythm,  usually  syncopated.  The  move- 
ments may  all  be  quick  and  yet  the  rhythm  be  slow,  if  the  pauses 
between  the  movements  are  long,  as  for  example  in  arm  bendings 
and  stretchings,  trunk  twistings,  leg  flingings,  charges,  etc.  Or 
both  movements  and  rhythm  may  be  slow,  as  in  trunk  bendings, 
arm  raisings,  slow  heel  raising  and  knee  bending.  Again,  the 
pauses  between  movements  may  be  varied — one- long,  the  other 
short,  as  in  arm  bending  and  stretching;  or  all  different,  as  in 
one  form  of  heel  raising  and  knee  bending.  Or  successive  parts 
of  a  compound  movement  may  be  done  with  different  speed,  the 
first  two  quick,  the  second  two  slow,  or  vice  versa;  or  the  first 
and  last  quick,  second  and  third  slow  and  so  on.  In  all  cases 
where  the  speed  of  or  the  length  of  pause  between  successive  parts 
of  a  movement  varies,  the  rhythm  will,  of  course,  be  uneven — 
"broken"  or  "undulating"  rhythm.  Most  of  the  movements  will 
be  distinct  from  each  other,  punctuated,  as  it  were,  by  positions. 
Such  progression  from  indefinite  to  definite  style  of  work  might 
be  suitable  to  classes  of  children,  or  of  adolescents  and  adults 
who  could  not  be  expected  to  give  enough  thought  and  effort  to 
the  work  to  become  interested  in  it  in  any  other  way.  It  might 
be  called  the  most  natural  mode  of  progression.  The  reverse 
order,  starting  with  the  simplest  types  of  definite  movements, 
done  on  command,  and  demanding  from  the  outset  great  atten- 
tion to  detail,  then  gradually  introducing  the  rhythmical  element 
and  more  complexity,  but  without  any  loss  in  definiteness,  is 
entirely  practicable,  and  the  desired  results  are  more  surely  and 
quickly  obtained  than  by  the  other  method.  Such  progression 
might  be  suitable  for  classes  of  adolescents  or  adults  whose  intel- 
ligent cooperation  and  interest  can  be  secured,  by  one  means  or 


TEACHING  DIFFERENT  TYPES  OF  WORK  81 

another,  from  the  beginning,  or  who  have  had  adequate  previous 
training,  as  for  example  upper  elementary,  high  school  and  college 
students. 

How  to  combine  definiteness  of  execution  with  rhythmical 
continuity  is  primarily  a  question  of  skillful  teaching.  But  it 
is  also  a  matter  of  choice,  definition  and  combination  of  move- 
ments, as  well  as  careful  progression.  It  means  that  the  majority 
of  the  exercises  will  be  such  as  are  capable  of  at  least  some 
degree  of  subdivision,  or  are  built  up  of  simple  elements  into 
various  combinations  and  alternations.  Each  part  can  then  be 
practiced  separately  on  command  as  much  as  is  desirable  in  order 
to  obtain  correct  execution  and  quick  response.  But  the  bulk  of 
the  repetitions  may  be  made  rhythmically,  while  familiar  move- 
ments may  be  started  rhythmically  at  the  outset.  Thus  sufficient 
total  quantity  and  continuity  of  muscular  work  with  commen- 
surate organic  effects  can  be  secured.  During  this  rhythmical 
repetition  there  is  apt  to  be  some  loss  of  definiteness.  But  with 
the  right  spirit  of  enthusiasm,  energy  and  perseverance  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher,  by  his  constant  attention  to  details,  his  insist- 
ence on  correct  execution  and  momentary  retention  of  positions, 
coupled  with  judicious  choice  and  progression,  the  two  principles 
— rhythm  and  definiteness — may  be  harmonized  and  the  maxi- 
mum values  represented  by  each  obtained  simultaneously. 


Having  in  the  previous  chapters  discussed  at  some  length  the 
various  phases  of  teaching,  the  remaining  chapters  will  be  devoted 
to  a  consideration  of  such  topics  as  classification  of  exercises, 
principles  of  selection,  definition  and  combination  of  movements, 
arrangement  of  lessons,  and  progression. 


IV.     SUBJECT-MATTER. 

1.    AIMS  AND  VALUES  OF  GYMNASTICS. 

As  a  basis  for  the  discussion  of  the  content  and  character  of 
the  gymnastic  lesson  a  consideration  of  the  aims,  purposes  and 
effects  of  the  work  would  seem  in  place.  While  there  is  now 
no  great  diversity  of  opinion  as  to  the  principal  objects  aimed  at 
and  the  real  values  represented  by  gymnastic  work,  there  still 
exist  some  confusion  and  misconception,  at  least  in  the  minds 
of  the  laity,  regarding  what  constitutes  rational  gymnastics  and 
what  results  may  or  may  not  be  accomplished  by  the  work. 

It  is  unfortunately  true  that  at  present  gymnastic  work  suffers 
from  the  extravagant  claims  made  for  it  by  some  of  its  earlier 
enthusiastic  advocates  in  this  country,  and  from  the  limitations 
imposed  by  loyalty  to  traditional,  more  or  less  empirical  concep- 
tions and  methods.  It  is  often  placed  in  a  false  position  and  made 
to  appear  at  a  disadvantage  by  superficial  and  specious  compari- 
son with  dancing,  play,  games  and  athletics,  and  by  being  classed 
indiscriminately  with  these  in  general  and  cursory  discussions  of 
the  values  of  physical  education.  Again,  the  reactive  effect  of 
excessive  claims  on  the  one  hand,  and  all  too  numerous  examples 
of  poor  teaching  and  poor  work  on  the  other,  have  led  some  sincere 
and  thoughtful  exponents  of  physical  education  to  relegate  gym- 
nastics to  the  role  of  a  mere  therapeutic  agent,  to  be  used  only 
in  cases  requiring  correction  of  faulty  anatomical  relations,  de- 
velopmental defects,  etc.  By  implication  or  direct  statement  it 
has  even  been  denied  that  the  work  has  much,  or  any,  educational 
value,  or  that  it  is  capable  of  supplying  the  need  for  general 
exercise  in  an  adequate  and  interesting  manner. 

That  there  are  numerous  instances  of  work  carried  on  in  a 
way  to  justify  views  like  these  is  undoubtedly  true.  There  may 
also  be  found  examples  of  work  which  fails  to  accomplish  even 
the  so-called  corrective  purpose.  Perhaps  this  is  more  often  the 
case  than  not.  But  such  extreme  depreciation  of  gymnastic  work 
is  unwarranted  and  exceptional.  That  it  has  a  place,  and  an  im- 
portant one,  both  as  a  hygienic  agent  and  as  a  positive  factor  in 
education,  is  recognized  by  the  vast  majority  of  leaders  in  physi- 
cal education  as  well  as  by  an  increasing  number  of  men  and 
women  identified  with  efforts  to  advance  the  scope  and  effective- 
ness of  education  in  all  its  phases. 


AIMS  AND  I' A  LUES  83 

(1)     The  hygienic  aim  of  gymnastics. 

This  is  to  furnish  muscular  exercise  of  an  all-round  character, 
sufficient  in  quantity,  continuity  and  vigor  to  promote  a  lively 
tissue  metabolism  and  thereby  to  insure  a  marked  organic  reac- 
tion. In  the  brief  period  usually  allotted  to  a  gymnastic  lesson 
this  organic  stimulation  must  necessarily  be  as  powerful  as  is 
consistent  with  safety,  in  order  to  produce  lasting  and  permanent 
effects.  The  work  must,  therefore,  be  concentrated  enough  to 
cause  immediate  and  progressive  increase  of  heart  action,  with 
accompanying  acceleration  of  the  whole  circulation ;  rise  of  arte- 
rial pressure ;  relief  of  venous  and  lymph  stasis  everywhere,  and 
especially  in  the  body  cavities  and  internal  organs;  flushing  and 
heightened  activity  of  the  skin ;  deeper  and  more  rapid  ventilation 
of  the  lungs ;  vigorous  stimulation  of  the  abdominal  organs. 

All  these  immediate  organic  reactions  are  brought  about  in 
two  ways:  (1)  By  the  mechanical  effects  of  the  exercises — the 
pumping  action  exerted  on  the  venous  and  lymphatic  circulation 
by  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation  of  muscles,  by  move- 
ments in  joints  and  by  increased  thoracic  aspiration;  increased 
peristalsis  and  more  vigorous  action  of  the  glandular  organs, 
induced  by  greater  variations  of  intra-abdominal  pressure  con- 
sequent on  more  extensive  action  of  the  diaphragm  and  abdominal 
muscles,  as  well  as  the  shaking  and  mutual  massage  of  the 
abdominal  organs.  (2)  By  the  adjusting  influence  of  the  central 
and  sympathetic  nervous  systems  in  response  to  direct  or  reflex 
stimulation  by  the  products  of  muscular  activity.  When  these 
organic  effects  are  obtained  in  a  moderately  high  but  not  exces- 
sive degree  through  the  execution  of  exercises  in  a  well-planned 
and  skillfully  conducted  gymnastic  lesson,  they  are  accompanied 
and  followed  by  a  sense  of  exhilaration  and  physical  well-being 
as  enjoyable  and  refreshing  as  they  would  be  if  produced  by 
any  other  form  of  bodily  activity.  The  frequent  and  regular 
repetition  of  such  exercise  is  bound  to  increase  the  functional 
efficiency  of  all  the  organs,  to  favor  all  the  processes  which  make 
for  health,  vitality  and  organic  vigor.  That  such  is  the  case  is 
abundantly  attested  to  by  observations  of  teachers  and  medical 
directors  in  school,  college  and  especially  in  Y.  M.  C.  A.  gym- 
nasia. 

(2)     The  educational  aim  of  gymnastics. 

This  is  primarily  the  training  of  subjective  motor  control. 
Such  control  is  shown  on  the  one  hand  in  ability  to  assume  and 
maintain  good  posture,  in  erect  carriage,  ease  of  bearing,  grace 
and  economy  of  ordinary  movement;  on  the  other,  it  leads  to 
general  agility,  ability  to  manage  one's  body  to  best  advantage 


84  i;Y.\L\'ASTIC  TEACH  1\(, 

under  any  circumstances — in  short,  to  have  one's  body  well  in 
hand  for  any  purpose  whatever. 

Objective  and  subjective  motor  training*  The  formal  educa- 
tional process  is  preceded  by  and  based  on  the  informal  and  more 
or  less  spontaneous,  self-directed  psycho-motor  training  of  the 
earliest  years  of  life.  During  the  first  years  of  school  life  the 
further  training  in  motor  control  receives  some  attention.  But 
the  guidance  offered  is  directed  mainly  to  the  development  of 
the  accessory  neuro-muscular  mechanisms  and  their  coordina- 
tions. As  regards  the  larger,  fundamental  movements,  and  the 
further  cultivation  of  their  coordinations  and  adaptations,  the 
child  is  often  left  to  his  own  devices.  It  is  assumed  that  he  will 
get  sufficient  training  in  this  direction  through  spontaneous  play 
and  games.  And  to  a  certain  extent  he  does.  But  here  he  is 
likely  to  follow  trends  and  habits  already  acquired,  to  be  re- 
stricted by  these  and  by  correlated  structural  peculiarities.  Unless 
the  activities  are  abundant  and  infinitely  varied  in  character,  the 
number  and  delicacy  of  coordinations  so  acquired  will  be  limited, 
and  his  range  of  motor  adaptation,  outside  the  habitual  activities, 
will  be  equally  restricted.  Supervision  and  guidance  of  play  and 
games  from  kindergarten  to  playground  represent  efforts  to 
widen  the  scope  and  increase  the  effectiveness  of  this  kind  of 
motor  training.  Under  ideal  conditions  (such  as  probably  never 
will  be  realized)  it  is  conceivable  that  such  training  might  be 
made  adequate  for  all  purposes.  But  at  best  school  life  will 
always  represent  a  relatively  large  proportion  of  time  spent  in 
sedentary  work,  with  its  unfavorable  effect  on  posture  and  its 
tendency  to  deficient  or  faulty  development  of  the  motor  organs. 

Furthermore,  the  motor  control  resulting  from  play  and  games 
is  largely  .objective,  unconscious ;  it  makes  use  mainly  of  already 
acquired,  reflex  coordinations,  following  lines  of  least  resistance, 
and  does  not  tend  to  great  diversification,  except  in  so  far  as 
the  activities  are  diverse.  It  is  true  that  such  activities,  when 
numerous  and  varied  enough,  cultivate  the  kind  of  bodily  control 
which  relates  the  individual  to  external  things,  and  especially  to 
moving  objects ;  that  they  train  the  ability  to  judge  distance,  speed 
and  momentum,  and  to  gauge  correctly  the  muscular  efforts  with 
reference  to  these,  and  so  may  result  in  a  fair  degree  of  general 
agility.  This  may  be  called  applied  or  objective  motor  training 
and  is  of  direct  practical  value  as  an  element  of  objective  physical 
efficiency.  The  values  in  social  and  moral  ideas  and  habits  of 
thought  associated  with  and  accruing  from  this  kind  of  training 
are  of  course  of  overshadowing  importance  and  would  alone 

*For  a  farther  discussion  of  this  subject  see  introductory  part  of  Gymnastic  Kinesi- 
ology,  by  Wm.  Skarstrom. 


AIMS  AND  VALUES  85 

justify  giving  such  activities  a  prominent  place  in  any  thorough- 
going scheme  of  education. 

Efficiency  in  activities  of  this  objective  character  is  dependent 
on  and  in  turn  will  tend  to  increase  the  amount  of  purely  subject- 
ive motor  control.  With  this  is  meant  the  ability  to  manage  to 
best  advantage  the  parts  of  the  body  with  reference  to  each  other 
and  the  body  as  a  whole  with  reference  chiefly  to  space,  gravity, 
momentum  and  balance.  The  degree  of  such  subjective  control 
may  be  said  to  represent  the  individual's  potential  power  of  motor 
adaptation,  and  is  applicable  to  any  form  of  activity  with  which 
it  has  elements  in  common.  It  expresses  itself  in  the  individual's 
general  bearing,  posture  and  habits  of  movement.  Ease,  poise, 
grace,  agility  and  their  opposites  are  terms  denoting  relative 
degrees  of  subjective  control  or  the  lack  of  it. 

For  this  purely  subjective  training,  gymnastics  and  dancing  are 
particularly  effective.  They  are  both  subjective  forms  of  activity. 
They  both  require  conscious  attention  to  the  movements  and  the 
posture  of  the  body  as  a  whole  or  its  parts.  In  each  the  move- 
ments are  predetermined  and  their  execution  represents  efforts  to 
conform  to  more  or  less  clearly  defined  standards.  The  move- 
ments are  artificial  in  the  sense  that  there  is  no  immediate 
objective  application.  In  gymnastics,  especially,  they  are  often 
more  extreme  in  range  or  more  localized  and  sharply  denned  than 
would  be  called  for  in  ordinary  activities,  but  not  more  so  than 
might  at  some  time  be  called  for  and  applied  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  some  objective  purpose.  In  this  predetermined,  clearly 
denned  character,  this  definiteness  of  gymnastic  work,  lies  its 
distinctive  effectiveness  as  a  means  of  subjective  motor  training. 
It  makes  possible  the  cultivation,  in  a  systematic  manner,  of  the 
latent,  potential  powers  of  coordination  which  might  otherwise 
remain  dormant ;  the  opening  up  of  new  paths  of  motor  associa- 
tions ;  the  perfecting  of  existing  but  vague  and  uncertain  coordina- 
tions until  they  become  assured,  well  adjusted,  requiring  less  and 
less  conscious  attention  and  are  finally  automatic.  A  good  illus- 
tration of  these  processes  is  the  acquiring  of  ability  to  land 
lightly,  with  sure  balance  and  good  fundamental  position,  in 
jumps,  vaults  and  dismounts  from  gymnastic  apparatus,  under  a 
great  variety  of  conditions  as  regards  height,  amount  and  direc- 
tion of  momentum,  position  and  movement  of  the  body  in  the 
air,  etc. 

The  ability  to  assume  and  maintain  good  posture  is  really  a 
phase  of  the  general  subjective  motor  control  aimed  at  by  rational 
gymnastics.  Erect  carriage,  easy  poise  and  fine  bearing,  when 
habitual,  signify  perfect  adjustment,  weight  distribution  and  bal- 
ance of  the  different  parts  of  the  body.  They  represent  economi- 


86  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

cal  distribution  of  muscular  tension,  a  high  degree  and  even 
balance  of  muscular  tone,  equalized  pressure  on  the  surfaces  of 
joints  and  minimum  tension  on  their  fibrous  structures.  All  this 
implies  readiness  for  all  kinds  of  action,  elimination  of  unneces- 
sary strain,  conservation  of  energy.  Good  posture  also  means 
the  most  favorable  conditions  for  the  internal  organs  as  regards 
room,  free  circulation,  relative  position  and  natural  support. 
Thus  it  makes  for  health  and  efficiency,  as  well  as  beauty  and 
harmony. 

The  degree  of  erect  posture  and  well-balanced  poise  attained 
by  an  individual  will  vary  with  his  natural  endowment  (inherited 
tendencies),  the  number,  kind  and  diversity  of  activities  in  which 
he  engages,  and  the  habits  he  forms  or  is  led  to  form  during  the 
first  fifteen  or  twenty  years  of  his  life.  In  perhaps  the  majority 
of  cases,  where  little  or  no  attention  is  given  to  the  matter,  the 
individual  falls  far  too  short  of  his  possibilities  in  this  respect, 
as  well  as  in  the  matter  of  general  motor  efficiency — subjective 
and  objective.  That  such  discrepancy  between  the  potential  and 
the  actual  may  not  be  due  entirely  to  insufficient  quantity  or 
variety  of  bodily  activity  in  early  life  (though  that  is  probably 
the  chief  cause)  is  suggested  by  numerous  instances  of  young 
men  who  have  engaged  freely  in  various  games  and  sports  from 
childhood,  and  who  yet,  in  their  carriage  and  subjective  motor 
habits,  seem  to  be  in  need  of  considerable  further  training. 

We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  certain  primitive  peoples,  like 
the  Indians  before  they  were  touched  by  civilization,  as  naturally 
endowed  with  erect  carriage  and  fine  bearing,  this  being  a  racial 
trait,  associated  with  and  the  result  of  a  free  and  active  outdoor 
life.  But  while  this  may  have  been  true  to  a  certain  extent,  it 
was  also  the  result  of  conscious  effort  and  training  associated 
with  their  ideals  of  manly  qualities,  of  bodily  prowess  and  beauty, 
and  of  a  proper  pride  and  dignity  of  character.  So  also  with 
the  Bedouin  nomads  of  the  Arabian  deserts,  noted  for  their 
superb  carriage,  dignified  bearing  and  grace  of  movement. 
According  to  the  accounts  of  travelers,  their  children  are  really 
educated  to  this  by  parental  precept,  admonition,  reproof  and 
suggestion. 

One  of  the  aims  of  gymnastics,  then,  should  be  to  emphasize 
posture  training  throughout.  Every  exercise  should  be  selected, 
defined  and  executed  in  a  way  to  further  this  aim,  directly  or 
indirectly.  And  not  merely  as  a  corrective  for  faulty  posture, 
whether  in  the  lower  or  upper  part  of  the  body.  But  rather  the 
ideal  of  correct  execution  of  all  exercises,  of  efficiency  and  grace 
of  all  movement,  should  include  the  maintenance  of  the  best 
possible  posture,  no  matter  what  the  difficulty,  magnitude,  speed 


AIMS  AND  VALUES  87 

or  power  of  the  movement.  Any  exercise  incompatible  with  good 
posture  should  be  discarded.  In  so-called  corrective  exercises 
the  element  of  posture  training  is  merely  emphasized  by  so  defin- 
ing the  movements  as  to  demand  supreme  efforts  in  the  direction 
of  correct  posture,  or  by  introducing  difficulties  making  such 
extreme  efforts  necessary  in  order  not  to  lose  correct  posture. 

Equalization  of  growth  and  development  may  also  be  con- 
sidered a  legitimate  aim  of  gymnastics,  closely  associated  with 
posture  training.  The  exercises  selected  and  defined  with  a  view 
to  their  effectiveness  as  a  means  of  postural  and  general  subjective 
motor  training  will  also  exert  the  most  favorable  influence  on 
growth  and  be  conducive  to  a  harmonious  muscular  development. 
\Yhen  necessary  these  should  be  supplemented  by  special  exercises 
of  a  more  powerful  and  localized  character. 

The  acquisition  of  useful  forms  of  agility.  The  attainment  of 
proficiency  in  primitive  forms  of  bodily  prowess,  such  as  various 
kinds  of  leaping,  vaulting  and  climbing,  is  one  of  the  'practical 
results  of  the  subjective  training  aimed  at  by  gymnastics.  Speed 
and  endurance  in  running  may  also  be  included  in  this  category. 
A  moderate  proficiency  in  such  matters  may  be  needed  urgently 
from  time  to  time  even  under  the  sheltered  and  comfortable  condi- 
tions of  modern,  civilized  life.  At  any  rate  it  gives  the  possessor 
a  sense  of  confidence  and  assurance  of  being  able  to  take  care 
of  himself  in  ordinary  emergencies  or  mishaps. 

In  the  matter  of  moral  and  social  training  gymnastic  work  is 
inferior  to  games  or  athletics.  But  while  the  excessive  claims 
made  for  it  in  this  respect  have  not  been  borne  out  by  experience, 
the  work  may  not  be  devoid  of  value  in  its  influence  on  the  individ- 
ual's mental  life  and  his  character.  The  execution  of  precise  and 
vigorous  movements,  whether  in  response  to  a  command,  or  timed 
exactly  to  conform  to  a  given  rhythm  and  to  be  in  unison  with 
the  movements  of  the  other  members  of  the  class,  requires  con- 
centrated attention,  discriminating  and  often  supreme  effort. 
Aside  from  the  mental  processes  involved  in  relating  kinesthetic 
sense  perceptions  and  their  associated  motor  ideas  to  volitionally 
coordinated  movements,  and  the  purely  motor  training  this  repre- 
sents, such  work  cannot  but  make  for  improved  habits  of  atten- 
tion and  strengthened  will  power,  while  self-control  and  a  spirit 
of  cooperation  are  cultivated  through  the  appreciation  of  the 
beauty  and  power  of  orderly  and  disciplined  group  action. 

The  individual's  realization  of  the  benefits  received  from  a 
conscientious  performance  of  the  work  might  reasonably  be  ex- 
pected to  lead  to  the  formation  of  wholesome  habits  of  life. 
Having  once  experienced  the  satisfaction  and  sense  of  well-being, 
of  power  and  efficiency,  associated  with  regular,  systematic, 
rational  exercise,  he  is  more  likely  to  treat  his  body  with  due 


88  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

respect,  to  heed  its  laws  and  recognize  its  possibilities  as  well 
as  its  limitations.  The  influence  of  this  kind  of  self-respect 
on  the  individual's  whole  life  and  character  is  not  to  be  underrated. 

(3)     Gymnastics  as  recreation. 

While  the  hygienic  and  educational  values  are  dependent  on 
the  personality  and  skill  of  the  teacher  as  well  as  on  the  character 
of  the  work,  this  is  true  in  an  even  greater  degree  as  regards  the 
immediate  enjoyment  and  interest  in  the  work.  Although  gym- 
nastics should  never  be  placed  in  the  false  position  of  serving 
as  fun  and  amusement,  or  be  made  to  take  the  place  of  play 
and  recreation,  there  is  no  reason  why  a  skillful  and  enthusiastic 
teacher  cannot  make  the  work  (and  it  is  always  real  work,  if 
it  is  to  amount  to  anything)  interesting  and  enjoyable.  He  may 
do  this  partly  by  suggestion,  by  making  his  own  animation,  earn- 
estness and  enthusiasm  contagious,  partly  by  adapting  the  work 
and  his  style  of  teaching  to  the  varied  and  changing  interests  of 
his  pupils. 

With  classes  of  young  children  the  work  may  be  presented 
and  carried  on  in  a  spirit  of  play  and  make-believe,  enlisting 
their  imagination  and  their  natural  desire  to  express  their  ideas 
in  terms  of  representation  movements.  This  no  doubt  is  fun 
to  them.  But  after  the  age  of  twelve  or  thereabouts  gymnastic 
work  cannot  be  expected  to  appeal  directly  to  the  pupils  as  fun 
or  even  to  be  interesting  for  its  own  sake.  Indirectly,  however,  as 
means  to  an  end,  and  to  a  certain  extent  through  the  spirit  of 
emulation  which  the  teacher  may  legitimately  arouse,  the  work 
may  continue  to  be  of  interest.  And,  at  all  times,  when  properly 
conducted,  there  is  the  pleasure  and  satisfaction  of  vigorous 
action,  the  inspiration  of  doing  something  worth  while  and  doing 
it  as  well  as  possible,  in  unison  and  cooperation  with  others,  and 
with  the  knowledge  that  it  will  result  in  immediate  and  permanent 
benefit.  Only  in  this  sense  can  gymnastic  work  be  considered 
recreation.  And  that  it  is  so  considered  by  large  numbers  is 
indicated  by  the  enthusiastic  and  unflagging  interest  maintained 
in  the  optional  classes  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.,  Y.  W.  C.  A.,  Turn- 
verein,  Settlement  and  Municipal  gymnasia  all  over  the  country. 

(4)     Adaptation  of  aims  to  conditions. 

The  emphasis  given  to  any  of  these  aims  and  values,  and 
therefore  the  character  of  the  work,  will  vary  with  the  age,  sex, 
ability,  state  of  training  and  physical  condition  of  any  given 
group  of  pupils.  It  will  also  depend  on  the  mental  attitude 
toward  the  work  shown  not  only  by  pupils  but  by  responsible 


AIMS  AND  VALUES  89 

authorities.  Finally  the  work  and  its  aims  must  be  in  accord 
with  the  general  purpose  and  fit  in  with  the  other  activities  of 
the  institution  in  which  it  is  carried  on. 

1.  In  educational  institutions  the  responsibility  of  the  school 
(or  college)  to  see  that  no  ill  effect  is  produced  by  its  curriculum 
on  the  health  and  development  of  the  pupils  must  be  recognized. 
This  implies  the  necessity  to  counteract  the  unfavorable  tendencies 
of  school  life — its  effects  on  general  metabolism,  on  the  abdominal 
and  thoracic  organs  and  on  the  spine — inevitably  associated  with 
sedentary,  indoor  occupation.    Besides  attention  to  hygienic  condi- 
tions in  the  matter  of  ventilation,  light  and  seating,  as  well  as 
the  most  favorable  distribution  of  school  work,  this  more  or  less 
negative  aim  is  to  be  accomplished  by  giving  the  pupils  frequent 
short  periods  of  exercise  in  the  form  of  gymnastics,  plays  and 
games.     The  gymnastic  work  of  such  brief  relief  periods  would 
aim  to  bring  out  as  strong  organic  and  corrective  postural  effects 
as  possible  in  the  short  time. 

In  addition  to  counteracting  the  unfavorable  tendencies  asso- 
ciated with  the  sedentary  character  of  school  life,  the  school  is 
responsible  for  such  psycho-motor  training  as  the  individual 
needs  in  order  to  be  able  consciously  to  control  his  own  body. 
The  training  of  such  subjective  control,  in  which  posture  training 
should  always  be  a  large  element,  is,  therefore,  to  be  emphasized 
in  the  gymnastic  work  of  the  regular  school  period  devoted  to 
physical  education.  It  is  best  accomplished  by  exercises  of  the 
definite  type,  representing  the  simpler  elements  of  movement  out 
of  wrhich  are  composed  the  more  complex  movements  of  ordinary 
activities,  as  well  as  of  dances,  games  and  athletics.  But  while 
emphasizing  the  educational  aspects  of  the  work,  it  should  be 
conducted  in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  the  greatest  possible 
hygienic  effects  at  the  same  time.  In  the  successful  combination 
and  accomplishment  of  these  aims  lies  the  opportunity  of  the  skill- 
ful teacher  to  make  the  work  appreciated,  interesting  and  enjoy- 
able. 

2.  In    non-educational    institutions — including    social    service 
and  philanthropic  enterprises  of  a  more  or  less  educational  charac- 
ter— the  emphasis  may  be,  and  often  is,  put  chiefly  on  the  hygienic 
aspect  of  the  work.    At  the  same  time  efforts  are  made  to  have 
it  represent  as  much  wholesome  recreation  as  possible — in  its 
character,  teaching  and  accessories  or  adjuncts.     The  style  of 
work  which  most  readily  lends  itself  to  the  accomplishment  of 
these  aims  comprises  the  rhythmic,  more  or  less  indefinite  types 
of  exercises,  often  in  the  form  of  memorized  drills,  practiced 
partly  with  a  view  to  eventual  public  performance.     But  even 
here  it  will  be  advantageous  and  desirable  for  the  teacher — from 
the  standpoint  of  maintaining  interest  as  well  as  in  the  matter 


90  C.y.MX.lSTIC  TEACH  1\C, 

of  rendering  service — to  keep  in  view  the  educational  possibilities 
of  the  work.  By  striving  to  make  the  pupils  understand  and 
appreciate  these  values  he  will  gradually  create  a  demand  for 
and  an  interest  in  the  kind  of  exercises  which  most  effectively 
represent  them,  and  thus  make  opportunity  for  increasing  the 
scope  of  the  work. 


2.     SELECTION. 

The  necessity  for  care  and  judgment  in  the  selection  of  gym- 
nastic exercises  is  now  generally  recognized.  The  principle  of 
selection  has  not  always  been  universally  accepted,  however.  It 
was  held  by  some  of  the  older  Germans,  for  example  (notably 
Spiess  and  later  DuBois  Raymond),  that  if  an  exercise  could 
be  done,  that  was  sufficient  reason  for  doing  it.  This  all-possi- 
bilities theory  led  to  the  use  of  much  work  which  was  either  of 
a  nature  tending  to  produce  undesirable  results,  or  else  trivial, 
purposeless  and  even  absurd.  The  theory  is  now  generally  aban- 
doned, but  the  effects  of  it  are  still  seen  in  the  use  or  encourage- 
ment of  types  of  exercises  which  are,  to  say  the  least,  of  doubtful 
value.  Some  such  types,  for  example  certain  exercises  on  gym- 
nastic apparatus  with  the  body  supported  on  the  arms,  are 
admitted,  even  by  many  teachers  who  use  them,  to  have  obvious 
objectionable  tendencies,  and  can  be  defended  only  on  grounds 
of  popular  interest  based  largely  on  traditions  and  associations. 

Principles  of  selection.  In  the  selection  of  exercises  we  should 
be  guided  by  what  practical  and  theoretical  knowledge  we  possess 
regarding  the  immediate  and  remote  effects  of  the  exercises,  their 
suitability  as  material  for  class  work  under  any  given  conditions, 
and  their  adaptability  to  the  purposes  for  which  the  work  stands. 
In  the  last  analysis  this  will  mean  an  understanding  of  the  main 
features  of  the  anatomical  mechanism  of  the  movements,  a  work- 
ing knowledge  of  the  physiology  of  exercise,  and  the  correct  appli- 
cation of  these  to  the  needs  and  abilities  of  any  given  group  of 
pupils. 

Only  such  exercises  should  be  selected  as  contribute,  directly 
or  indirectly,  to  one  or  more  of  the  main  objects  of  the  work. 
Such  as  would  distinctly  tend  to  defeat  any  of  these  objects,  even 
though  they  might  represent  value  in  some  directions,  should  be 
excluded.  In  the  latter  category  would  fall,  for  example,  a  num- 
ber of  apparatus  exercises — on  the  horse,  parallel  bars,  rings  and 
horizontal  bar — in  which  the  joint  mechanism  and  muscular 
action  are  such  as  to  make  a  good  posture  of  head,  chest,  should- 
ers and  upper  back  extremely  difficult,  if  not  impossible.  Simi- 
larly, exercises  subjecting  the  organism  to  excessive  strain,  local 


SELECTION  91 

or  general,  or  involving  too  great  risk  of  injury  from  falls,  or  in 
any  other  way,  should  be  discarded  for  use  in  class  work,  and  even 
discouraged  when  indulged  in  outside  of  class.  This  does  not  pre- 
clude the  practice,  after  proper  preparation  and  with  sufficient 
safeguards,  of  feats  of  strength,  skill  and  agility  of  a  character  in 
keeping  with  the  normal  structure  and  natural  use  of  the  body, 
and  having  a  bearing  on  possible  legitimate  demands  which  may 
be  made  upon  it.  In  considering  the  question  of  harmful  exer- 
cises it  is  to  be  remembered  that,  while  occasional  performance 
of  any  exercise  with  undesirable  tendencies  cannot  always  be 
asserted  to  be  directly  harmful,  the  inclusion  of  such  exercises 
in  class  work,  or  their  encouragement  outside  of  class,  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  teacher's  stamp  of  approval.  The  teacher's  selection 
and  definition  of  exercises  determine  or  strongly  influence  the 
pupils'  ideals  and  standards  of  quality,  their  ideas  of  what  is 
correct  and  permanently  beneficial. 

In  selecting  exercises  for  different  groups,  the  age,  sex, 
strength,  ability,  state  of  training  and  mental  attitude  of  the 
pupils  must  of  course  be  given  due  consideration.  Values  and 
effects  are  often  relative.  What  may  be  safe,  beneficial,  or 
interesting  to  one  individual  or  class  may  be  the  reverse  to  an- 
other. In  this  respect  selection  is  often  bound  up  with  progres- 
sion. 

3.     CLASSIFICATION. 

No  single  exercise  embodies  all  the  desirable  features,  all  the 
beneficial  effects  for  which  gymnastic  work  is  practiced.  The 
same  is  true  as  regards  athletics,  games  and  sports.  The  nearest 
approach  to  it  is  perhaps  found  in  breast-stroke  swimming.  In 
formal  gymnastics  such  all-round  exercises  do  not  occur.  And 
even  if,  by  dint  of  ingenuity,  a  few  such  exercises  could  be 
invented,  it  would  not  be  desirable  nor  even  feasible  to  limit  our- 
selves to  their  exclusive  use.  As  soon  as  they  were  mastered 
they  would  cease  to  represent  educational  value  and  therefore 
lose  interest. 

There  are,  of  course,  many,  combinations  of  movements  which 
are  of  a  more  or  less  all-round  character,  and  they  are  very  use- 
ful in  rounding  out  a  gymnastic  lesson,  particularly  in  the  matter 
of  obtaining  marked  organic  effects.  Where  this  is  the  main 
object,  and  in  classes  requiring  that  the  bulk  of  the  work  be 
of  the  indefinite  type,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  exercises 
may  be  of  this  all-round  character.  But  generally  it  is  not  wise 
to  have  too  many  in  a  single  lesson. 

While  all  gymnastic  exercises  have  certain  main  characteristics 
in  common — e.g.,  they  all  involve  muscular  contraction,  coordina- 


92  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

tion,  some  form  of  mental  effort,  fatigue,  etc. — they  differ  in 
details — in  the  amount  of  these  various  features,  and  in  the  local 
effects  they  produce  on  the  body.  According  to  these  details  and 
local  effects  they  may  be  referred  to  one  or  more  of  a  few  main 
groups,  each  of  which  represents  some  special  features,  such  as 
circumscribed  muscular  action,  or  pronounced  effects  on  certain 
organs,  or  wide  distribution  with  great  intensity  of  muscular 
effort  and  with  correspondingly  heightened  organic  reaction. 
There  are,  of  course,  no  sharp  lines  of  demarcation  between 
these  groups;  they  all  overlap  more  or  less,  and  many  of  the 
distinctions  are  relative.  Often  an  exercise  may  be  referred  to 
one  group  at  an  early  stage  of  training  and  to  another  group 
later.  Thus  classification  may  be  dependent  on  progression. 
Again,  many  exercises  embody  several  important  features  at  once. 
Such  may  be  either  put  in  a  group  by  themselves  and  labelled 
"miscellaneous"  or  "all-round"  exercises,  or  designated  by  some 
descriptive  term,  such  as  charges.  Or  they  may  be  referred  to  any 
one  or  all  of  the  classes  the  characteristics  of  which  they  repre- 
sent. 

The  classification  employed  in  Swedish  gymnastics  seems  on 
the  whole  satisfactory  for  all  practical  purposes.  With  slight 
modifications  it  will  be  adhered  to  both  as  regards  terms  and 
characterization.  It  comprises  the  following  groups:  order  ex- 
ercises, principally  marching;  leg  and  arm  exercises  (especially 
leg)  ;  arching  movements  (for  the  upper  back)  ;  compensatory 
movements  (for  the  lower  back)  ;  lateral  trunk  exercises;  balance 
exercises;  abdominal  exercises;  back  and  shoulder  blade  exer- 
cises; suspension  and  arm  support  exercises;  jumping,  vaulting, 
and  running  (precipitant  exercises),  and  slowing-down  or  breath- 
ing exercises. 

(1)     Order  Exercises. 

In  this  group  are  included  marching  and  evolutions,  facings, 
march  steps  of  stated  number — any  exercises  involving  quick  and 
unexpected  changes  of  position,  direction  or  momentum,  and 
therefore  demanding  a  continuous  and  high  degree  of  concentrated 
voluntary  attention.  The  element  of  purely  "mental"  work — 
alertness,  quick  perception,  understanding,  decision  and  instant 
response  without  much  preparation — is  emphasized.  The  pri- 
mary purpose  of  this  class  of  exercises  is  to  wake  up  a  class: 
to  stimulate  it  without  producing  too  much  fatigue;  to  focus 
a  more  or  less  dispersed  attention,  to  change  it  from  a  pre- 
dominantly reflex  to  a  more  voluntary  character  and  to  direct 
it  toward  the  prompt  execution  of  precise,  vigorous  and  con- 
sciously controlled  movements.  The  exercises  in  this  group 


CLASSIFICATION  93 

are  generally  of  a  character  demanding  muscular  contractions  of 
only  very  moderate  intensity,  but  widely  distributed,  including 
all  or  most  of  the  fundamental  and  naturally  associated  groups. 
They  are  usually  repeated  a  great  number  of  times  in  rhythmic 
cadence  and  in  general  are  of  the  indefinite  type.  (This  does 
not  appply  to  quick  changes  of  gymnastic  positions  executed  on 
command.)  For  this  reason  they  are  very  effective  as  a  means 
of  moderate  organic  stimulation. 

These  two  characteristics — focusing  and  determining  the  line 
of  active  attention,  and  producing  a  moderate  but  general  organic 
reaction — make  this  group  of  exercises  eminently  suitable  as 
introductory  to  the  rest  of  the  gymnastic  lesson.  They  may  be 
truly  designated  as  "warming  up"  exercises,  preparing  the  pupils 
and  putting  them  into  the  proper  mental  attitude  and  bodily 
condition  for  the  work  to  follow.  When  well  presented  and 
conducted,  they  are  usually  interesting  to  the  class.  The  pupils 
are  put  on  their  mettle  to  keep  wide  awake,  to  contribute  to  the 
successful  and  finished  performance  of  the  group  action.  The 
incentive  to  wholehearted  cooperation,  to  concentrated  attention, 
to  conscientious  and  careful  effort,  is  here  greater  than  perhaps 
under  any  other  circumstances.  The  least  mistake  is  not  only  liable 
to  jeopardize  the  success  of  the  group  action,  but  may  make  the 
individual  who  is  guilty  of  it  conspicuous  in  a  way  that  would 
chagrin  even  the  rrtost  apathetic  and  make  him  anxious  to  avoid 
it — e.g.,  colliding  with  or  being  stepped  on  by  his  mates,  marching 
off  alone  in  a  wrong  direction,  causing  loss  of  alignment,  rhythm, 
etc. 

Aside  from  training  habits  of  attention,  quick  response  and 
cooperation  which  work  of  this  character  undoubtedly  does,  it 
also  may  be  made  to  contribute  appreciably  to  the  general  sub- 
jective motor  training  of  the  individual.  It  would  chiefly  tend 
to  improve  gait  and  carriage ;  cultivate  the  sense  of  equilibrium 
and  rhythm;  teach  economy  of  effort  in  the  management  of 
momentum  and  weight  distribution,  in  blending  and  smooth 
sequence  or  alternation  of  movement.  The  element  of  coordi- 
nation while  not  very  prominent,  at  least  as  regards  learning 
new  forms,  is  of  a  character  directly  applicable  to  the  ordinary 
activities  of  daily  life. 

Finally,  the  exercises  in  this  group  serve  the  useful  purpose 
of  teaching  the  class  certain  manoeuvres,  evolutions  and  forma- 
tions which  enable  the  teacher  to  handle  it  with  ease,  facility, 
orderliness  and  minimum  expenditure  of  time.  In  this  sense,  as 
well  as  in  the  sense  of  compelling  attention,  lively  action  and 
proper  cooperation,  these  exercises  are  of  a  truly  disciplinary 
character. 


94  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

The  principal  type  is  marching.  The  progression  may  be  from 
flank  marching — single  or  double  file — of  a  rather  indefinite 
character,  in  which  the  class  practically  "follows  the  leader"  and 
the  leader  is  guided  informally  by  the  teacher,  with  or  without 
commands.  This  is  especially  suitable  for  classes  of  young  chil- 
dren and  serves  mainly  to  teach  them  to  keep  time  and  step. 
After  a  time  facings  and  steps,  executed  on  command,  are  taught 
separately.  Then,  gradually,  the  resultant  training  in  rhythm, 
response,  and  unison  of  action  is  applied  to  real  marching,  making 
possible  at  first  front  and  rear  marching;  then  changes  (with- 
out halting)  from  one  or  the  other  to  flank  marching  and  vice 
versa;  still  later  starting  a  march  with  a  facing  left,  right  or 
about  and  coming  to  a  halt  with  a  facing;  changing  from  single 
to  double  file,  or  to  a  column  of  fours,  etc. ;  and  finally  the  whole 
field  of  tactics  and  evolutions.  At  whatever  stage  in  the  pro- 
gression, the  work  should  always  be  of  a  brisk,  snappy  charac- 
ter, with  the  element  of  uncertainty  or  unexpectedness  prominent. 

With  older  pupils,  whose  kitelligent  interest  and  cooperation 
can  be  relied  on  from  the  outset,  the  progression  may  with 
advantage  be  from  simple  facings  and  steps  to  front  and  rear 
marching,  etc.,  without  the  preliminary  "indefinite"  flank  march- 
ing. 

The  other  type  of  order  exercises  consists  of  quick  changes 
from  one  gymnastic  position  to  another  on  the.  word  of  command. 
Such  exercises  may  be  used  in  the  place  of  marching  or  as 
supplementary  order  exercises,  especially  with  children,  and  in 
the  schoolroom,  where  the  best  type  of  marching  cannot  be 
well  carried  out.  While  undoubtedly  effective  in  stimulating 
attention,  it  is  not  wise  to  use  this  type  too  often  or  too  much  at 
any  one  time.  Pupils  do  not  always  react  as  expected,  and  if  they 
fail  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of  lively  action  which  the  movements 
are  intended  to  elicit,  the  object  for  which  they  are  given  is  de- 
feated and  the  opposite  conditions  may  result.  This  is  particularly 
apt  to  happen  if  the  commands  follow  each  other  too  rapidly,  re- 
gardless of  the  failure  of  many  pupils  to  respond  promptly  and 
with  precision. 

(2)     Leg  and  Arm  Exercises. 

The  chief  features  of  this  class  of  exercises  are  the  amount, 
localization  and  to  some  extent  the  character  (rhythm,  speed, 
range,  etc.)  of  the  muscular  work  demanded.  Aside  from  the  lively 
interplay  of  the  trunk  muscles  which  always  occurs  when  the  body 
weight  is  shifted,  and  which  in  some  of  the  exercises  of  this 
group  is  an  incidental  feature  of  considerable  importance,  the 
main  muscular  action  involves  the  large  and  massive  groups 


CLASSIFICATION  95 

of  hip,  thigh  and  lower  leg.  To  this  is  added,  in  combined  arm 
and  leg  movements,  the  powerful  contractions  of  the  fairly 
large  sized  muscles  about  the  shoulders  as  well  as  the  less  bulky 
arm  muscles.  The  repeated  contractions  of  these  large  muscular 
masses — even  if  moderate  in  range  or  speed — alternating  with 
more  or  less  complete  relaxation,  profoundly  influence  the  blood 
and  lymph  circulation.  And  not  only  locally,  but  all  over  the 
body.  The  arterioles  of  the  working  muscles  dilate  as  do  those 
of  the  corresponding  skin  areas.  The  first  effect  of  this  would 
be  to  lower  general  blood  pressure.  But  this  is  prevented,  and 
the  pressure  is  even  increased,  by  the  compensatory  constriction 
of  arteries  in  the  abdominal  and  other  body  cavities,  as  well  as 
by  increased  heart  action,  all  brought  about  reflexly  by  adjusting 
nervous  mechanisms.  The  auxiliary  forces  of  the  (venous)  cir- 
culation— pumping  action  on  veins  (and  lymphatics)  exerted  by 
muscular  contractions,  movements  of  joints  and  thoracic  aspira- 
tion— are  brought  into  full  action.  Thus  the  circulation  of  both 
blood  and  lymph  is  accelerated  and  equalized.  Venous  and  lymph 
stasis  of  internal  organs  is  relieved,  while  the  skin  all  over  the 
body  becomes  flushed  and  its  glands  are  more  active.  Other 
organs  are  affected  correspondingly.  Indeed,  this  class  of  exer- 
cises represents  the  hygienic  element — Organic  stimulation — 
perhaps  as  typically  as  any.  This  is  particularly  the  case  when 
the  movements  are  repeated  rhythmically.  Many  of  the  exercises 
in  this  class  demand  a  relatively  small  amount  of  nervous  tension 
in  the  way  of  alertness,  difficult  coordination  and  fine  discrimi- 
nation of  effort  (providing  the  progression  is  what  it  should  be). 
At  the  same  sime  they  may  be  defined  and  taught  in  a  way  to 
have  considerable  "go"  and  rhythmic  action.  These  character- 
istics, as  well  as  the  great  variety  of  combination  to  which  they 
readily  lend  themselves,  make  possible  a  fairly  accurte  grada- 
tion or  adjustment  of  quantity  and  intensity  of  the  muscular 
work,  with  corresponding  gauging  of  organic  stimulation.  For 
all  these  reasons  they  are  admirably  adapted  to  be  put  at  the 
beginning  of  the  lesson.  The  pupils  are  made  to  feel  that  they 
are  doing  something.  They  are  readily  led  to  direct  their  atten- 
tion and  will  to  vigorous  and  controlled  muscular  action.  When 
these  exercises  are  done  rhythmically  the  pupils  "get  into  the 
work"  of  the  lesson  in  a  way  that  is  both  interesting  and  satis- 
factory. 

Besides  the  general  effects  noted  above,  the  exercises  of  this 
group  develop  size,  strength  and  coordination  of  the  leg  muscles 
in  a  most  effective  manner.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  deep 
knee  bendings  and  the  lunges,  which  employ  the  complete  range 
of  contraction,  or  great  speed,  or  both,  of  all  the  muscular  groups 


96  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

from  the  hips  down.  For  this  reason,  as  well  on  account  of  their 
general  effects,  they  should  not  be  left  out  of  the  lesson,  even 
if  the  pupils  consider  that  they  get  enough  leg  work  in  other 
ways,  such  as  walking,  running,  standing  for  long  periods  of 
time,  etc. 

Some  of  the  smaller  movements  such  as  heel  raising,  toe 
raising,  foot  placings,  etc.,  may  be  defined  and  executed  in  a  way 
to  strengthen  the  arches  of  the  feet.  The  foot  placings  also  call 
for  quick,  widely  distributed  and  well-controlled  action  of  the 
large  trunk  muscles,  needed  in  the  sudden  changes  of  weight 
distribution,  in  gathering  and  checking  momentum.  The  arm 
movements  that  are  used  in  combination  with  the  leg  movements 
may  be  considered  to  serve  partly  the  same  general  and  special 
purposes,  partly  to  increase  the  complexity,  difficulty  and  total 
muscular  work  of  the  leg  movements.  They  also  serve  as  pre- 
paratory or  supplementary  training  for  similar  types  when  used 
for  special  purposes  in  other  groups,  either  by  themselves  or  in 
combination  and  alternation  with  trunk  movements. 


(3)     Arching  Movements. 

The  exercises  of  this  group  represent  posture  training  in  gym- 
nastics more  distinctly  and  exclusively  than  those  of  any  other 
group.  They  are  so  defined  that  when  properly  executed  they 
tend  to  exert  an  influence  on  posture  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
body  diametrically  opposite  to  that  exerted  by  the  conditions  of 
daily  life,  and  especially  those  conditions  associated  with  sedentary 
occupations. 

The  factors  which  determine  posture.  Aside  from  such 
general  conditions  as  health,  vitality,  good  nutrition  and  self- 
respect,  the  chief  factors  which  determine  posture  are:  (1)  the 
size  and  shape  of  bones  and  their  articular  surfaces;  (2)  the 
relative  length  and  tension  of  opposing  muscles  and  fibrous 
structures. 

The  relative  size  or  shape  of  ribs,  clavicles,  scapulae  and  verte- 
brae, as  indicated  by  the  general  configuration  of  chest,  shoulders 
and  back,  is  largely  a  matter  of  heredity  (when  not  interfered 
with  by  disease  or  malnutrition).  But  in  some  measure  it  is  also 
influenced  by  the  use  the  body  is  put  to,  especially  during  the 
growing  period.  Use — exercise — not  only  influences  the  size  and 
form  of  the  bones  directly,  through  the  stress  of  pressure  and 
tension  to  which  it  subjects  them,  but  also  indirectly,  through 
the  resulting  muscular  tone  and  the  constant  tension  on  the  bony 
segments  that  this  implies. 

The  other  factor — relative  length  and  tension  of  opposing 
muscles  and  fibrous  structures — is  even  to  a  greater  degree 


CLASSIFICATION  97 

associated  with  and  dependent  on  muscular  tone,  and  this  in  turn 
is  largely  determined  by  habits  of  posture  and  movement. 
Frequent  complete  contraction  against  moderate  resistance,  or 
remaining  in  almost  complete  static  contraction  for  considerable 
periods  of  time,  while  seldom  being  subjected  to  prolonged  or 
complete  stretching,  are  conditions  conducive  to  increase  of 
muscular  tone  and  a  shortening  of  muscles  as  well  as  fibrous 
structures.  The  opposite  conditions — prolonged  passive  tension 
(stretching)  and  "eccentric"  or  even  static  and  "concentric"  con- 
traction of  slight  or  only  moderate  range — result  in  a  decrease  of 
muscular  tone  and  a  permanent  lengthening  of  muscles  as  well  as 
fibrous  structures.  For  fibrous,  like  muscular,  tissue  tends  to 
shorten  when  not  frequently  stretched  and  to  lengthen  when 
subjected  to  frequent  or  prolonged  tension. 

Faulty  posture.  In  the  ordinary  standing  or  sitting  position,  or 
while  walking  and  moving  about,  the  weight  of  the  head, 
shoulders  and  arms  tends  to  increase  the  natural  forward  curve 
of  the  thoracic  spine.  This  is  practically  always  associated  with 
a  drooping  or  forward  projection  of  the  head,  a  forward  dis- 
placement of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  more  or  less  depression  of 
the  chest.  The  only  provision  for  checking  this  tendency  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  column  to  collapse  forward  is  the  tonic  con- 
traction of  the  upper  back  and  posterior  scapular  muscles.  The 
force  of  gravity,  therefore,  acting  for  long  periods  of  time, 
subjects  these  muscles  to  strong  passive  tension.  When  they  yield 
and  become  lengthened,  because  of  insufficient  tone  and  endur- 
ance, the  superimposed  weight  is  in  part  carried  by  the  posterior 
ligaments  of  the  spine  and  shoulder  girdle.  At  the  same  time  the 
pressure  on  the  anterior  part  of  the  vertebrae  and  disks  is 
abnormally  great,  while  the  joint  surfaces  of  the  vertebras  and  of 
the  bones  of  the  shoulder  girdle  are  not  in  their  normal  relations. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  anterior  muscles  and  ligaments  are 
relaxed  during  long  periods  and  are  rarely  stretched  to  their 
utmost.  As  the  arms  are  moved  forward  most  of  the  time,  the 
anterior  shoulder  and  scapular  muscles  often  contract  through 
their  whole  range  and  sometimes  remain  contracted  and  con- 
siderably shortened  for  varying  periods  of  time.  Everything  is 
thus  favorable  for  a  relative  increase  of  tone  and  a  shortening  of 
these  muscles  as  well  as  of  all  the  fibrous  structures  in  front  of 
the  shoulders,  including  the  ligaments. 

Altered  conditions  of  tension  and  pressure  in  and  about  the 
joints  of  the  upper  spine,  shoulder  girdle  and  chest  thus  lead  to 
gradual  adaptive  changes,  not  only  in  the  length  and  tension  of 
opposing  sets  of  muscles  and  ligaments,  but  probably  also  in  the 
bones  and  their  articular  surfaces.  Moreover,  once  the  balance 


98  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

in  muscular  tone  is  lost  and  faulty  posture  becomes  habitual,  the 
individual's  habits  of  associated  muscular  action  are  also  changed, 
so  that  almost  every  powerful  effort  emphasizes  the  faulty 
posture.  He  soon  loses  both  the  muscular  strength  and  control 
necessary  to  assume  correct  posture.  Any  effort  in  this  direction 
makes  him  feel  strained  and  "unnatural."  Hence,  so  far  from 
correcting  itself  by  any  general  activity,  faulty  posture  rather 
tends  to  become  aggravated  by  anything  the  individual  does  in  a 
"natural"  manner. 

Posture  training.  In  gymnastics,  and  especially  in  arching 
movements,  as  well  as  in  the  closely  related  back  and  shoulder 
blade  exercises,  the  character  of  the  muscular  action  and  the 
mechanical  conditions  of  habitual,  relaxed  posture  are,  as  far  as 
possible,  reversed.  The  exercises  are  denned  and  graded  with  a 
view  to  give  the  pupils  an  ideal  of  good  posture ;  to  cultivate  the 
kinesthetic  sense  in  regard  to  posture  in  the  upper  part  of  the 
body ;  to  train  the  coordination  and  power  of  localized  contraction 
of  the  upper  back  muscles ;  to  increase  the  tone  and  endurance  of 
these  muscles ;  to  permanently  shorten  both  the  muscles  and  the 
fibrous  structures  in  this  region ;  and  to  stretch — to  lengthen — 
the  opposing  muscles  and  fibrous  structures  of  the  upper  front 
chest  and  shoulder  region. 

We  seek  to  obtain  these  results,  in  part  at  least,  through  the 
practice  of  exercises  which,  under  the  rather  inadequate  designa- 
tion of  arching  movements,  are  really  variations  of  a  single  type 
of  movement  chiefly  characterized  by  forcible  extension — even 
effort  at  hyperextension,  if  such  were  possible — of  the  thoracic 
spine,  with  accompanying  extreme  chest  expansion.  Whatever 
the  degree  of  difficulty  and  intensity — be  it  moderate,  as  in  the 
fundamental  standing  position  and  simple  "backward  bending  of 
head" ;  or  extreme,  as  in  so-called  "backward  bending  of  trunk" 
from  difficult  starting  positions  as  regards  arms  and  legs,  or 
accompanied  by  powerful  arm  and  shoulder  blade  movements ; 
or  done  with  the  hands  fixed  on  apparatus  like  the  bar  stalls, 
while  the  body  is  inclined  backward  from  the  ankles — the  mechan- 
ism of  the  exercises  is  always  the  same  in  its  main  features. 
This  may  be  described  briefly  as  the  most  complete  and  localized 
contraction  of  the  upper  back  muscles  of  which  the  individual  is 
capable  at  the  time.  It  involves  at  the  same  time  a  powerful 
stretching  of  the  upper  front  chest  and  shoulder  muscles,  even 
though  these  may  be  in  a  state  of  moderate  contraction  ("eccen- 
tric") to  help  guide  the  movement  or  maintain  the  proper  position. 
The  anterior  fibrous  structures — fasciae,  fibrous  coverings  and 
septa  of  muscles,  anterior  ligaments  of  the  spine  and  of  the  joints 
of  the  shoulder  region— all  these  are  similarly  stretched.  The 


CLASSIFICATION  99 

pressure  on  joint  surfaces  is  also  the  reverse  of  that  obtaining  in 
the  relaxed  position. 

The  motor  and  postural  training  represented  by  this  type  of 
exercise  consists,  then,  in  part  at  least,  of  temporary  and  perhaps 
to  some  extent  permanent  improvement  of  anatomical  relations. 
The  permanent  results  in  this  respect  may,  indeed,  be  rather  medi- 
ocre after  growth  has  been  completed  or  nearly  so.  And  even 
during  the  growing  period  the  results  of  the  exercises,  as  practiced 
in  the  gymnastic  lesson  alone,  may  not  be  sufficient  to  lead  to  any 
marked  anatomical  change.  To  have  the  desired  permanent 
effects  on  posture  such  exercises  must  be  supplemented  by  similar 
and  often  repeated  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  individual,  for  long 
periods  of  time. 

But  aside  from  some  increase  of  tone  in  the  responsible 
muscles  and  some  stretching  of  resistant  structures,  the  chief 
claim  that  can  be  made  for  the  exercises  is  that  they  suggest  the 
ideal  of  correct  posture  and  are  conducive  to  the  kind  of  muscular 
control  which  is  a  prerequisite  in  any  endeavor  to  improve  posture 
by  conscious  effort.  Furthermore,  in  stimulating  a  class  or  an 
individual  to  correct  execution  of  such  exercises,  the  teacher  has 
an  opportunity  to  impress  on  the  pupils  the  importance  of  good 
posture,  to  urge  them  to  strive  for  it  at  all  times,  to  suggest 
definite,  practical  ways  of  attaining  it  ( for  example,  by  maintain- 
ing for  a  specified  period  of  time  each  day  a  forced  erect  carriage 
while  walking)  and  so  to  start  them  in  habits  which  will  ultimately 
lead  to  permanently  improved  posture. 

The  difficulties,  in  the  way  of  faulty  execution,  are  of  two  kinds. 
One  is  the  tendency  to  merely  tilt  the  head  backward  and  at  the 
same  time  to  draw  the  shoulders  back  and  up.  The  other  is  the 
strong  tendency  to  excessive  hollowing — hyperextension — in  the 
lower  back.  They  may  go  together,  though  the  latter  is  more 
often  associated  with  and  aggravated  by  successful  efforts  to  draw 
the  shoulders  back  and  down.  Both  are  highly  undesirable  and 
are  due  to  inability  to  localize  properly  the  muscular  efforts. 
Most  people  lack  the  power  to  control  the  upper  back  muscles 
independently  of  the  lower.  Any  effort  to  straighten  up  inevitably 
leads  to  an  increase  in  the  lower  (lumbar)  curve  of  the  spine. 
This  may  result  in  a  leaning  backward  from  the  waist  or  in  an 
excessive  backward  displacement  of  the  hips.  Besides  being  ugly 
such  a  posture  is  undesirable  for  other  reasons.  It  means  a  weak 
position  of  the  back  in  cases  of  falls  or  missteps,  causes  painful 
fatigue  and  strain  in  this  region,  is  associated  with  excessive 
pelvic  obliquity  and  lax  abdominal  muscles,  and  is  therefore 
unfavorable  for  the  abdominal  and  pelvic  organs  and  the  pelvic 
joints. 


ioo  I;YM.VASTIC  TEACHING 

To  resist  this  faulty  tendency,  and  so  to  avoid  acquiring  one 
faulty  posture  while  making  efforts  to  improve  another,  it  is 
necessary  to  contract  the  abdominal  muscles  almost  as  powerfully 
as  the  back  muscles  in  all  exercises  of  the  type  designated  by  the 
term  arching  ^novements.  The  contraction  of  the  abdominal 
muscles  tends  to  tilt  the  pelvis  to  a  more  horizontal  plane,  to 
straighten  the  lower  spine,  and  so  to  neutralize  the  effect  of 
excessive  contraction  of  the  lower  erector  spinae  group  of  muscles. 
In  other  words,  it  enables  the  individual  to  localize  the  movement 
high  up  in  the  back.  With  practice  some  power  to  localise  the 
muscular  contraction  to  the  upper  back  region  is  acquired,  so  that 
at  least  moderate  efforts  to  straighten  up  may  be  made  without 
inducing  much  or  any  increased  lumbar  hyperextension.  Corre- 
spondingly decreased  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles  will 
then  be  needed,  and  the  whole  position  loses  some  of  the  feeling 
and  appearance  of  stiffness  which  are  apparent  at  first.  Thus, 
gradually,  the  ability  is  acquired  to  maintain  erect  carriage 
without  much  or  any  conscious  effort.  It  becomes  more  "natural" 
and  finally  habitual.  As  the  power  of  localized  muscular  control 
increases,  maximal  contractions  of  the  upper  back  and  abdominal 
muscles  (and  even  of  the  hip  joint  extensors)  are  insured  in 
practice  by  doing  the  movements  from  more  difficult  starting 
positions,  or  by  combining  them  with  arm  movements,  or  both. 

The  final  effect  in  the  way  of  muscular  control,  resulting  from 
a  diligent  practice  of  arching  movements,  is  an  ability  to  dis- 
sociate, to  some  extent  at  least,  the  action  of  the  upper  back 
muscles  from  that  of  the  lower ;  to  be  able  to  associate  the  former 
with  vigorous  action  of  the  abdominals  and  even  with  the  hip 
joint  extensors.  Such  ability  to  make  the  innervation  and  asso- 
ciation of  action  of  muscular  groups  cross  from  the  back  to  the 
front  and  again  to  the  back  of  the  body — literally  to  take  in  the 
slack  on  the  convex  parts — is  not  possessed  naturally,  even  by 
individuals  whose  habitual  posture  and  carriage  as  well  as  general 
muscular  control  are  very  good.  They  do  not  need  it.  But  to 
overcome  faulty  postural  tendencies  and  habits  such  ability  is 
absolutely  necessary. 

Because  of  the  great  difficulty  of  doing  these  exercises  with  full 
vigor  without  increasing  lumbar  hyperextension  and  thus  culti- 
vating a  "hollow  back"  posture,  the  progression  has  to  be  very 
slow  and  carefully  graded.  At  first,  even  attempts  to  assume  a 
good  fundamental  standing  position  will  induce  this  fault.  This 
is  still  more  the  case  in  such  derived  starting  positions  as  those 
reached  by  arm  bending  (with  hands  at  the  shoulders  and  elbows 
close  to  the  side  of  the  body),  by  placing  the  hands  behind  the 
neck,  by  arm  raising  sideways  or  by  raising  the  arms  straight 
overhead. 


CLASSIFICATION  101 

At  first  the  movement  should  be  called  "backward  bending  of 
head,"  in  order  to  suggest  to  the  pupils  the  right  kind  and  localiza- 
tion of  muscular  effort.  When  the  chin  is  kept  from  being  tilted 
upward  the  backward  movement  of  the  head  is  really  due  to  an 
extension  in  the  upper  thoracic  spine.  As  the  pupils  learn  to  do 
this  movement  correctly  and  with  full  vigor  with  the  arms  in  the 
various  derived  positions,  the  name  may  be  changed  to  "backward 
arching  of  trunk,"  giving  the  pupils  to  understand  that  the 
movement  is  the  same,  but  is  now  to  be  done  with  the  utmost 
effort  to  arch  the  whole  upper  back  without  participation  of  the 
lower.  But  constant  watchfulness  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  is 
needed  to  see  that  the  majority  actually  succeed  in  doing  the 
movement  correctly.  If  not,  then  return  to  a  simpler  form.  It 
may  be  that  the  class  can  never  be  given  the  most  advanced  types, 
such  as  backward  arching  of  trunk  with  the  arms  overhead  and 
one  foot  in  front.  The  type  done  at  the  bar  stalls,  called  true 
arch  flexions  (or  span  bendings)  in  Swedish  gymnastics,  is  still 
more  precarious  as  regards  liability  to  produce  hollow  back.  It 
is  doubtful  if  its  use  is  justifiable  in  any  but  exceptionally  well- 
trained  classes. 

The  free-standing  arching  movements  are  best  done  singly  on 
command  for  some  time.  Not  until  the  class  has  reached  a  point 
where  the  average  pupil  has  good  control  of  the  back  and 
abdominal  muscles,  and  is  accustomed  to  the  "definite"  style  of 
work,  is  it  safe  to  attempt  doing  arching  movements  rhythmically. 
A  fair  degree  of  correctness  of  execution  may  then  be  attained  by 
alternating  the  "backward  arching"  with  foot  placings  or  arm 
movements.  The  best  rhythm  will  be  the  uneven,  syncopated 
kind,  which  strongly  contrasts  the  slow,  carefully  controlled  arch- 
ing movement  with  the  quick  arm  or  leg  movement ;  the  whole 
exercise  being  guided  by  constant  stimulations  and  admonitions. 
To  head  off  the  common  tendency  to  assume  a  poorer  position 
after  the  return  from  the  "backward  arching"  than  obtained 
before  the  beginning  of  the  movement,  try  to  have  the  class  retain 
the  "arch"  position,  with  only  slight  muscular  relaxation,  during 
the  "return"  count.  There  will  always  be  sufficient  unconscious 
relaxation  during  the  intervening  arm  or  leg  movement  to  give 
opportunity  for  an  appreciable -"backward  arching"  at  each  rep- 
etition. 

When  repeated  rhythmically  a  reasonable  number  of  times,  and 
each  part  of  the  exercise  is  done  with  the  proper  vigor  and  speed, 
or  steadiness,  the  compound  and  combined  arching  movements 
represent  a  not  inconsiderable  amount  of  muscular  work.  Thus 
they  may  be  made  to  contribute  in  a  moderate  degree  to  the 
general  organic  stimulation  produced  by  the  lesson  as  a  whole. 


102  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

(4)     Compensatory  Movements. 

This  group  comprises  two  types  of  exercises:  forward  and 
forward-downward  bendings  of  trunk ;  knee-upward  bending  and 
leg  flinging  forward"  These  may  also,  and  more  specifically,  be 
classified  respectively  as  back  exercises  and  abdominal  exercises. 
Because  of  their  effects  on  the  lower  spine  they  are  used  as  supple- 
mentary or  compensatory  exercieses  to  the  arching  movements 
and  immediately  follow  them  in  the  lesson.  By  inducing  a  marked 
straightening  and  even  reversal  of  the  posteriorly  concave  curve  of 
the  lower  back  they  (1)  alter,  temporarily,  the  conditions  of  pres- 
sure and  tension  of  joint  surfaces,  intervertebral  disks,  ligaments, 
nerves,  etc.,  in  this  region.  The  circulatory  conditions  of  the 
parts  are  also  undoubtedly  influenced  favorably  by  these  changes 
in  pressure  and  tension.  All  this  gives  a  sense  of  relief  from  the 
strain  and  fatigue  incident  to  the  greater  or  less  degree  of  lumbar 
hyperextension  inevitably  induced  by  the  arching  movements. 
(2)  They  supplement  and  emphasize  the  training  in  localized 
muscular  control  furnished  by  the  arching  movements. 

In  arching  movements  correct  execution  calls  for  maximum 
contraction  of  the  upper  back  muscles  with  minimum  participa- 
tion of  the  lower  erector  spins.  The  compensatory  exercises 
necessarily  require  as  much  relaxation  as  possible  of  the  lower 
back  muscles,  while  at  the  same  time  efforts  are  made  to  maintain 
the  upper  back  muscles  strongly  contracted.  Only  by  so  doing 
can  a  forward-downward  bending  of  trunk  be  carried  to  the 
utmost  limit  with  the  upper  back  straight  and  the  head,  chest  and 
shoulders  in  good  fundamental  position.  The  knee  upward 
bending  (or  knee  raising  as  high  as  possible)  and  leg  flinging 
forward  accomplish  the  same  purposes  in  a  different  way.  When- 
ever the  femur  moves  forward-upward  the  pelvis  is  tilted  to  a 
more  horizontal  position.  This  can  only  be  done  by  a  movement 
of  the  nature  of  flexion  in  the  lumbar  spine,  amounting  to  a 
straightening  or  even  reversal  of  the  natural  curve  (hyper- 
extension).  To  allow  such  a  straightening  the  lower  erector 
spinae  must  yield,  while  the  effort  to  keep  the  upper  back,  chest, 
shoulders  and  head  from  "slumping"  necessitates  strong  contrac- 
tion of  the  upper  back  muscles.  This  type  of  exercise  also 
strengthens  the  abdominal  muscles,  on  whose  tone  and  control  a 
good  posture  in  the  lower  back  largely  depends. 

As  regards  training  of  localized  muscular  control,  then,  the 
compensatory  movements  may  be  said  to  do  negatively  what  the 
arching  movements  aim  to  accomplish  positively.  Or,  to  put  it 
differently,  arching  movements  train  the  power  to  localize  con- 
traction of  and  tend  to  shorten  the  upper  back  muscles ;  compen- 


CLASSIFICATION  103 

satory  movements  aim  to  increase  the  power  to  localize  relaxation 
of  and  tend  to  lengthen  the  lower  back  muscles.  Each  tends  to 
increase  mobility  in  the  spine  in  directions  opposite  to  the  natural 
curves,  and  in  general  to  straighten  the  whole  spine — to"take  in 
the  slack"  of  the  muscles  and  fibrous  structures  on  the  convex 
side  of  the  curves. 

The  importance  of  having  in  each  gymnastic  lesson  at  least 
one,  and  preferably  more  than  one,  exercise  of  the  type  designated 
as  compensatory  movements,  must  be  obvious  to  any  one  who 
has  observed  the  hollow  back  position  assumed  by  pupils  whenever 
strong  contractions  of  the  back  muscles  are  called  for.  This 
occurs  not  only  in  the  fundamental  position  and  in  arching  move- 
ments, but  in  shoulder  blade  and  general  back  exercises,  in  trunk 
twistings  and  side  bendings,  in  charges  and  in  many  apparatus 
exercises.  In  fact  the  bulk  of  gymnastic  work,  when  done  with 
vigor,  strongly  tends  to  produce  this  undesirable  posture.  This 
tendency  is  due  to  several  factors,  chief  of  which  are: 

1.  The   inability  of   everyone    (who  has   not  been   specially 
trained)  to  contract  the  upper  back  muscles  without  contracting 
the  whole  erector  spinas  group. 

2.  The  preexistence  of  an  anteriorly  convex  curve  and  free 
mobility  in  the  direction  of  hyperextension  in  the  lumbar  spine. 
In   many  young  people  this   curve  and   mobility  are  not   only 
exaggerated,  but  located  higher  up  than  normal,  including  the 
lowest  two  or  three  thoracic  vertebrae/ 

3.  The    greater    mechanical    advantage    of    the    lower    back 
muscles,  pulling,  as  they  do,  over  a  concave  surface,  while  the 
upper  back  muscles  are  stretched  over  a  convex  surface. 

4.  The  erector  spinae  is  a  much  thicker  and  more  compact 
bundle  of  muscle  here  than  higher  up.     Its  tone  is  also  greatest 
in  this  region. 

5.  There  is  no  very  direct  muscular  mechanism  to  antagonize 
this  tendency  to  excessive  hyperextension  at  the  dorso-lumbar 
junction,  the  abdominal  muscles  being  the  only  group  which  can 
be  so  considered.    These  do  not  affect  the  upper  lumbar  and  lower 
thoracic  as  much  as  the  lower  lumbar  spine.     The  diaphragm 
and  psoas  muscles  contribute,  rather  than  otherwise,  to  the  hyper- 
extension by  pulling  forward  the  vertebrae  to   which  they  are 
attached. 

6.  In  gymnastic  positions  with  the  arms  stretched  backward, 
and  especially  overhead,  the  latissimus  dorsi  is  probably  also  a 
factor.    This  is  particularly  apt  to  be  the  case  when  the  range  of 
motion  in  the  shoulder  joint  is  limited,  due  to  tightness  of  the 
muscles  and  fibrous  structures  in  front,  and  efforts  are  made  to 
force  the  arms  backward  or  to  expand  the  chest. 


104  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

While  gymnastic  exercises  like  the  compensatory  and  abdominal 
movements  cultivate  the  muscular  strength  and  control  necessary 
to  resist  the  tendency  to  excessive  hollow  back  in  gymnastic  work, 
they  do  not  adequately  train  the  sense  of  correct  posture  and 
proper  weight  distribution  in  the  lower  trunk  region.  Such  correct 
posture  sense  is  a  prerequisite  for  the  right  application  of  muscu- 
lar efforts,  in  ordinary  movements  and  positions  as  well  as  in 
gymnastic  exercises.  For  the  acquisition  of  this  sense  of  ^position 
and  the  kind  of  muscular  efforts  needed,  individual  assistance  and 
guidance  by  the  teacher  are  most  effective.  Such  help  may  very 
well  include  forcible  manipulation,  preferably  before  a  large 
mirror,  so  that  the  pupil  can  both  see  and  feel  what  he  has  to  do. 

Besides  their  special  effects  on  posture,  in  developing  and 
strengthening  the  back  (or  abdominal)  muscles  and  increasing 
their  control,  the  exercises  in  this  group  represent  a  considerable 
quantity  of  muscular  work.  The  majority  of  the  forward  and 
forward-downward  bendings  readily  lend  themselves  to  combina- 
tion or  alternatipn  with  arm  movements,  foot  placings  and  even 
knee  bending.  The  knee  upward  bendings  and  leg  flingings 
forward  have  all  the  characteristics  of  abdominal  exercises  and  to 
some  degree  those  of  leg  movements.  All  are  suitable  for 
rhythmic  repetition  and  so  may  be  made  to  contribute  largely  to 
the  general  organic  effects  of  the  lesson.  For  this  reason,  too,  it 
is  wise,  if  time  permits,  to  have  more  than  one  representative  of 
this  group  in  each  lesson. 

(5)     Lateral  Trunk  Exercises.     • 

This  is  one  of  the  three  groups  of  trunk  exercises,  the  other 
two  being  the  abdominal  and  the  back  movements.  As  its  name 
implies,  the  localization  of  the  muscular  action  is  chiefly  in  the 
waist  or  loin  region.  There  being  no  lateral  trunk  muscles,  prop- 
erly speaking,  the  contiguous  abdominal  and  back  muscles  of 
each  side  act  together  in  such  types  as  side  bending  and  leg  mov- 
ing sideways ;  while  in  trunk  twisting  the  different  layers  of 
oblique  abdominal  muscles  on  each  side  act  in  conjunction  with 
the  oblique  back  muscles. 

Exercises  of  this  group  thus  involve  fairly  wide  distribution 
of  muscular  action.  When  of  a  vigorous  character  (and  most 
of  them  are  or  may  be)  the  total  quantity  of 'muscular  work  is 
therefore  considerable.  The  organs  of  circulation  and  respira- 
tion are  correspondingly  active.  Besides  these  general  effects, 
lateral  trunk  exercises  influence  the  various  organic  functions  in 
special  ways.  The  circulation  in  the  abdominal  cavity  and  espe- 
cially the  portal  flow  is  stimulated  and  aided  by  the  alternate 
compression  and  stretching  of  the  organs.  These  variations  of 


CLASSIFICATION  105 

pressure  and  tension  also  mechanically  stimulate  the  intestine  to 
more  vigorous  peristalsis. 

The  conditions  under  which  breathing  takes  place  are  modi- 
fied. Respiration  is  apt  to  be  interfered  with  owing  to  the 
powerful  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles  in  some  of  the 
exercises,  notably  trunk  twistings.  This  increases  the  intra- 
abdominal  pressure  and  hinders  the  descent  of  the  diaphragm. 
Inspiration  must  therefore  be  accomplished  mainly  by  move- 
ment of  the  ribs.  The  change  of  form  of  the  thorax  in  many 
of  the  exercises  requires  all  or  nearly  all  of  the  mobility  of  which 
the  chest  is  capable,  leaving  but  a  slight  range  for  purposes  of 
breathing.  The  tension  of  the  abdominal  muscles  and  of  those 
oblique  back  muscles  attached  to  the  ribs  tends  to  reduce  still 
further  the  mobility  of  the  chest,  at  least  on  one  side  at  a  time. 
While  free  respiration  is  thus  hindered  at  the  extreme  limit  of 
each  movement,  the  effort  to  maintain  it  gives  good  training  to 
the  inspiratory  muscles,  teaches  the  individual  to  manage  his 
breathing  to  best  advantage  under  difficulties,  and  cultivates  the 
mobility  of  the  chest,  all  parts  of  which  are  made  to  do  full  duty 
during  the  different  phases  of  the  movement.  Because  of  these 
difficulties,  pupils  are  apt  to  hold  their  breath  for  considerable 
periods  and  need  frequent  reminders  from  the  teacher  to  try 
to  breathe  deeply  and  evenly. 

The  development  and  increased  control  of  the  abdominal  and 
back  muscles  is  another  valuable  feature  of  lateral  trunk  exer- 
cises. The  average  person  of  sedentary  habits  is  greatly  in  need 
of  this  kindof  training.  The  ordinary  movements  of  daily  life 
rarely  call  for  complete  or  varied  action  of  these  large  and  im- 
portant muscle  groups.  This  is  particularly  true  as  regards  the 
abdominal  muscles,  which  are  so  often  undeveloped,  relaxed  and 
covered  with  fat. 

In  view  of  the  many  valuable  effects — general  and  special — 
of  lateral  trunk  exercises,  at  least  one  and  preferably  two  or 
more  free-standing  movements  of  this  class  should  be  given  in 
each  lesson,  especially  when  there  is  little  or  no  apparatus  work. 
The  principal  types — side  bending  and  twisting — may  be  com- 
bined and  alternated  with  arm  movements,  foot  placings,  charges, 
lunges,  and  other  trunk  movements,  as  well  as  with  each  other, 
thus  offering  great  possibilities  for  variety  and  a  carefully  graded 
progression.  Leg  raising  sideways  offers  less  opportunity  in 
this  respect,  being  limited  to  variations  of  speed  and  range,  to 
combination  with  a  few  arm  movements,  and  alternation  or  com- 
bination with  jumps  on  toes  or  dancing  steps. 

Besides  the  free-standing  types  mentioned,  many  forms  of 
jumping,  tumbling,  vaulting,  climbing  and  other  apparatus  work 
embody  some  or  all  of  the  features  of  lateral  trunk  exercises. 


106  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

So  do  such  athletic  exercises  as  shot  put,  hammer  and  discus 
throw,  hurdling,  pole  vaulting,  paddling,  etc.  These  are  often 
of  an  even  more  powerful  character  than  the  free-standing  move- 
ments. 

(6)     Abdominal  Exercises. 

In  these  the  localization  of  the  work  on  the  abdominal  muscles 
is  more  direct  and  exclusive  than  in  any  other  class  of  exercises. 
The  principal  types  are  knee-upward  bending,  leg  raising  for- 
ward and  leg  circumduction  from  the  standing,  hanging  and  lying 
position ;  trunk  raising  from  the  lying  to  the  sitting  position  with 
feet  fixed  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  leaning  backward  from  the 
sitting  position  and  returning  to  it.  Another  type  is  backward 
leaning  of  the  trunk  while  in  the  kneeling  position,  on  one  or 
both  knees.  Moving  the  arms  forward  upward  and  forward 
downward  with  "chest"  weights  in  the  hands  and  the  body 
in  a  lying  or  reclining  position  (as  on  the  quarter  circle)  may 
also  be  included.  So  may  the  prone  falling  position  (front  lean- 
ing rest)  as  well  as  many  forms  of  jumping,  tumbling,  vaulting 
and  climbing. 

In  the  majority  of  these  exercises  the  thighs  are  flexed  on  the 
trunk,  or  the  trunk  on  the  thighs,  against  the  resistance  of  gravity. 
The  action  of  the  hip  joint  flexors  under  these  conditions  is 
always  associated  with  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles. 
Under  certain  conditions  of  fixation  the  pectorals  and  anterior 
neck  muscles  similarly  tend  to  act  in  conjunction  with  the  abdomi- 
nal muscles  or  vice  versa.  Indeed,  all  the  anterior  muscle  groups 
may  be  considered  parts  of  one  great  system  of  muscles  whose 
associated  action  tends  to  produce  a  general  "curling  up"  of  the 
whole  body.  In  the  majority  of  the  types  of  exercises  enumer- 
ated, however,  it  is  desirable  to  resist  the  effect  of  the  contraction 
of  pectorals  and  anterior  neck  muscles  (by  vigorous  contraction 
of  the  upper  back  muscles)  and  to  localize  the  movement  as  much 
as  possible  to  the  hip  joint.  The  contraction  of  the  hip  joint  flexors 
tends  to  tilt  the  pelvis  forward  (increasing  its  obliquity)  and  to 
produce  excessive  hyperextension  of  the  upper  lumbar  spine. 
The  associated  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles  not  only 
prevents  this,  and  steadies  the  pelvis,  but  even  flexes  it  on  the 
trunk  (decreasing  its  obliquity)  through  a  straightening  (and 
reversal  where  that  is  possible)  of  the  natural  curve  in  the  lower 
spine. 

In  their  general  organic  effects,  associated  with  powerful  con- 
traction of  large  muscle  groups,  the  abdominal  exercises  are  on 
a  par  with  the  lateral  trunk  movements.  Their  special  effects  on 
the  abdominal  organs  are  also  similar,  but  more  pronounced.  The 


CLASSIFICATION  107 

same  is  true  as  regards  increasing  the  strength,  tone  and  control  of 
the  abdominal  muscles.  In  this  connection  the  exercises  may 
even  be  considered  as  supplementary  to  the  compensatory  move- 
ments in  posture  training  of  the  lower  trunk  and  hip  region. 

Like  the  lateral  trunk  movements,  the  abdominal  exercises  tend 
also  to  hinder  free  respiration.  But  whereas  the  former  compel 
expansion  of  different  parts  of  the  chest  during  different  phases 
of  the  movement,  the  latter  always  tend  to  depress  the  chest,  to 
round  the  upper  back  and  to  draw  the  head  forward.  To  prevent 
these  faulty  tendencies  it  is  necessary,  as  already  stated,  to  con- 
tract the  upper  back  muscles  with  considerable  vigor.  Thus,  indi- 
rectly, the  abdominal  exercises  contribute  to  posture  training  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  body  by  offering  difficulties  in  maintaining 
good  posture  in  that  region. 

Because  of  the  relative  scarcity  of  free-standing  types  of 
abdominal  exercises  and  a  rather  limited  progression  within  each, 
it  may  not  always  be  feasible  to  have  a  representative  of  this 
group  in  each  lesson  without  frequent  repetition  of  the  same 
types,  viz.,  knee  upward  bending  and  leg  flinging  forward  (or 
forward-sideways),  backward  leaning  of  trunk  from  the  kneel- 
ing position,  and  prone  falling  position  with  or  without  foot  plac- 
ing forward  and  backward.  Letting  a  whole  class  lie  down  on 
the  floor  and  in  this  position  giving  leg  movements  is,  of  course, 
also  feasible.  When  no  apparatus  work  is  given,  at  least  one  of 
the  above  types  should  be  included  in  the  lesson.  When  appa- 
ratus work  is  a  part  of  the  lesson,  many  of  these  exercises  should 
be  of  a  kind  embodying  the  valuable  features  of  the  abdominal 
group. 

(7)     Back  and  Shoulder  Blade  Exercises. 

In  these  the  work  is  localized  on  the  back  muscles.  According 
as  the  emphasis  is  placed  chiefly  on  the  extreme  contraction  of 
the  upper  back  and  posterior  scapular  muscles,  or  the  work  is 
more  uniformly  distributed  over  all  the  muscular  groups  of  the 
back,  including  the  hip  joint  extensors,  the  exercises  of  this  group 
may  be  respectively  designated  as  shoulder  blade  movements  and 
general  back  movements. 

A.  Shoulder  Blade  Movements.  Under  this  head  come  the 
various  arm  movements,  such  as  arm  bending  and  stretching  side- 
ways, diagonally  upward,  upward,  forward,  backward — both 
arms  in  the  same  direction  or  each  in  diverse  directions — quick, 
or  slow  and  resisted;  forward  bending  and  sideways  flinging  of 
arms;  half  sideways  bending  of  arms  (to  side  horizontal,  elbow 
half  flexed)  ;  arm  raising  or  flinging  forward,  sideways,  forward- 
upward,  sideways-upward ;  arm  circles  large  or  small,  quick  or 


108  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

slow ;  swimming  movements  with  the  arms ;  placing  hands  on 
hips,  behind  neck  or  over  head ;  changes  from  one  of  the  positions 
reached  by  these  movements  to  another.  The  difficulty,  intensity 
and  total  amount  of  muscular  work  in  these  movements  are  in- 
creased by  doing  them  from  a  position  with  the  body  inclined 
forward,  as  by  being  bent  at  the  hips  (prone  standing  position) ; 
in  charges;  in  lying  face  downward  on  the  floor,  or  supported 
by  a  bench  under  the  thighs  (prone  lying  position).  They  may 
also  be  combined  with  leg  movements,  arching  and  compensatory 
movements,  or  alternated  with  these  and  almost  any  other  free- 
standing movement. 

Their  main  purpose,  aside  from  the  general  one  of  contribu- 
ting to  the  total  amount  and  greater  complexity  of  the  muscular 
work,  is  to  increase  the  strength,  endurance,  control  and  tone 
of  the  upper  back  and  scapular  muscles,  to  cultivate  the  posture 
sense,  and  thus  to  furnish  the  basis  and  means  for  effective  pos- 
ture training  in  the  upper  part  of  the  body.  In  this  respect  they 
resemble  and  supplement  the  arching  movements,  to  which  they 
are  closely  allied. 

Fixation  of  the  Shoulder  Girdle.  The  habitual  position  of  the 
shoulder  girdle  relative  to  the  thorax  is  largely  a  matter  of  bal- 
ance of  tone  on  the  part  of  the  anterior  and  posterior  scapular 
muscles.  If  the  posterior  muscles  are  slack  and  the  anterior  are 
in  a  relatively  higher  state  of  tonic  tension,  the  latter  will  draw 
the  scapula  away  from  the  spine  and  the  point  of  the  shoulder 
forward.  The  weight  of  the  shoulders,  naturally  tending  forward, 
acts  with  greater  leverage  the  farther  this  forward  displacement 
is  allowed  to  go.  In  movements  of  the  arms  in  front  of  the  body 
the  pectorals,  in  conjunction  with  the  serratus  magnus,  will  move 
the  shoulder  girdle  forward  as  far  as  it  will  go,  before  the  full 
force  of  the  pectoralis  major  is  exerted  on  the  arms.  If  the 
posterior  muscles  are  very  slack  (long),  the  final  checking  of  the 
forward  movement  of  the  shoulder  girdle  will  devolve  largely 
on  fibrous  structures — ligaments  and  fasciae.  Such  checking  by 
passive  tension  on  muscles  and  fibrous  structures  may  be  called 
passive  (ligamentous  or  natural)  fixation  of  the  shoulder  girdle. 

The  shoulder  blade  movements  enumerated  should  be  so  de- 
fined and  executed  that  there  is  a  minimum  forward  displace- 
ment (or  upward,  as  the  case  may  be)  of  the  shoulder  girdle  in 
movements  of  the  arms.  That  means  vigorous  and  sustained 
contraction  of  the  scapular  depressors  and  adductors  throughout 
the  exercises,  and  may  be  called  active  (muscular  or  artificial) 
fixation  of  the  shoulder  girdle.  The  resulting  increased  tone  and 
endurance  of  the  posterior  scapular  muscles  would  insure  a  more 
posterior  position  of  the  shoulder  girdle  in  passive  fixation  dur- 
ing arm  movements  as  well  as  a  better  habitual  posture,  not  only 


CLASSIFICATION  109 

of  the  shoulders,  but  of  the  upper  back  and  chest  as  well.  It  is 
another  case  of  "taking  in  the  slack"  on  the  convex  side. 

B.  General  Back  Movements.  These  comprise  forward  and 
forward-downward  bending  of  trunk  from  the  standing  and 
prone  lying  position,  the  latter  with  support  under  the  thighs 
(feet  fixed)  ;  forward  and  oblique  charges,  reverse  and  toe-sup- 
port charges  and  forward  bending  added  to  these ;  the  fall-hang- 
ing and  front  rest  positions  and  related  exercises,  as  well  as  a 
number  of  suspension  exercises  and  vaults.  All  involve  active 
contraction  of  the  whole  muscular  region  of  the  back  and  the 
posterior  hip  joint  muscles  (extensors).  These  are  active  in 
efforts  to  maintain  the  extended  position  of  the  whole  body 
against  gravity,  or  are  partly  relaxed  at  the  lower  level  to  permit 
flexion  at  the  hip  and  in  the  lumbar  spine,  while  those  in  the 
thoracic  region  remain  completely  contracted  to  keep  the  upper 
spine  straight.  In  returning  to  the  extended  (erect)  position 
against  the  resistance  of  gravity  they  all  contract  equally. 

The  difficulty  of  the  exercises  and  the  intensity  of  the  muscular 
work  will  depend  on  the  degree  of  projection  of  the  body  beyond 
the  point  of  support  and  on  the  height  at  which  the  arms  are 
carried.  Both  increase  the  weight  leverage.  The  horizontal 
position  in  forward  bending  represents  the  greatest  weight  lever- 
age. The  higher  and  more  difficult  positions  of  the  arms  not 
only  raise  the  center  of  gravity  but  also  increase  the  static  action 
of  the  scapular  and  upper  back  muscles.  When  arm  movements 
are  added,  the  intensity  of  the  muscular  work  is  still  further 
heightened.  All  these  factors  should  be  taken  into  account  in 
the  progression  of  these  exercises  and  in  deciding  where  to  place 
them  in  the  lesson. 

The  purpose  of  general  back  movements  is  to  develop, 
strengthen  and  increase  control  of  all  the  back  muscles ;  to  favor 
the  correct  growth  of  the  spine;  to  correct  minor  lateral  devia- 
tions ;  to  maintain  and  increase  mobility  in  the  directions  least 
cultivated  by  the  ordinary  movements  of  daily  life — extension  in 
the  upper  part,  flexion  in  the  lower.  The  intensity  and  wide 
distribution  of  the  muscular  work  also  represent  considerable 
organic  stimulation.  These  general  effects  are  enhanced  by 
rhythmic  repetition  alternating  with  foot  placings  or  arm  move- 
ments. 

(8)     Charges. 

Forward  and  oblique,  reverse  and  reverse  oblique  charges  ( feet 
about  three  foot-lengths  apart,  body  inclined  about  45  degrees  and 
in  line  with  the  rear  leg)  have  already  been  mentioned  under 
lateral  trunk  and  back  exercises.  They  have  many  of  the  char- 


110  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

acteristics  of  these  groups,  as  well  as  of  leg  movements,  and  are 
therefore  truly  all-round  exercises. 

On  account  of  the  varied  and  widely  distributed  muscular 
action,  charges  admirably  fulfill  the  purpose  of  general  exercise. 
They  are  also  very  valuable  as  a  means  of  training  the  kinesthetic 
sense  and  the  power  of  coordinating  the  action  of  trunk  and  leg 
muscles,  requiring,  as  they  do,  accurate  alignment  and  quick 
readjustments  of  weight  distribution.  Because  of  their  difficulty 
and  vigorous  all-round  character,  as  well  as  their  appearance, 
they  are  usually  interesting  to  pupils.  But  in  order  to  insure 
correct  execution  they  should  not  be  given  too  early,  and  the 
progression  should  be  slow  and  careful.  As  the  possibilities  for 
variations  are  considerable — by  combining  and  alternating  with 
arm  and  trunk  movements — this  type  of  exercise  may  be  repre- 
sented more  than  once  in  each  lesson  without  excessive  repetition 
of  each  variety. 

(9)     Balance  Exercises. 

As  the  name  implies,  the  chief  feature  in  this  class  of  exercises 
is  the  maintaining  of  equilibrium.  The  types  used  are  positions 
or  movements  in  which  the  base  is  progressively  reduced  and 
the  center  of  gravity  raised.  Such  are :  standing  on  the  toes  with 
toes  together,  or  one  foot  in  front  of  the  other  (close  toe  stand- 
ing and  walk  toe  standing  positions)  ;  or  on  one  foot  with  the 
other  raised  forward,  sideways  or  backward ;  head,  arm  or  leg 
movements  (including  heel  raising  and  knee  bending)  from  these 
positions;  the  toe-support  charge  position,  and  raising  of  the  rear 
leg  from  that  position  (horizontal  half  standing  position)  ;  for- 
ward bending  and  side  bending  of  trunk  on  one  foot,  the  other 
leg  in  line  with  the  trunk ;  leg  raising  from  the  side  falling  posi- 
tion (side  leaning  rest)  ;  opposite  arm  and  leg  raising  from  the 
prone  falling  position  (front  leaning  rest);  balance  marching; 
walking  forward,  backward  and  sideways  (with  various  modifi- 
cations) on  the  balance  beams. 

While  the  muscles  of  the  legs  are  usually  the  principal  groups 
involved,  all  parts  of  the  muscular  system,  especially  the  large 
groups  of  the  trunk,  are  more  or  less  active.  There  is  constant 
interplay  of  opposing  groups.  Sometimes  the  action  is  brief  and 
only  very  moderate.  Again  it  may  be  quite  violent  in  efforts  to 
recover  the  equilibrium  when  the  oscillations  have  become  too 
large. 

Although  the  distribution  of  the  muscular  work  is  usually  over 
wide  areas,  the  exercises  are  ordinarily  not  repeated  a  sufficient 
number  of  times  to  produce  any  marked  organic  effect.  This 
is  true  even  when  they  are  done  rhythmically  (as  it  is  possible 


CLASSIFICATION  111 

to  do  in  some  types).  But  in  such  cases  the  rhythm  should  be 
slow,  the  positions  being  held  relatively  long.  Otherwise  the 
exercise  represents  too  little  difficulty  in  keeping  the  balance. 

The  chief  value  of  exercises  of  this  kind  consists  in  the  train- 
ing of  subjective  motor  control.  They  cultivate  the  sense  of 
equilibrium  and  the  kind  of  muscular  coordination  required  to 
make  quick  and  accurate  adjustments  of  weight  distribution,  to 
check  promptly  too  great  or  sudden  deviations  from  the  proper 
alignment  and  poise  of  the  various  segments  of  the  column. 

When  many  of  the  exercises  in  the  lesson  offer  some  degree 
of  difficulty  in  maintaining  a  steady  balance  or  require  frequent 
and  quick  changes  of  weight  distribution,  as  is  the  case  in  charges 
and  in  many  movements  done  from  the  walk  standing  or  close 
standing  positions,  special  balance  exercises  may  be  dispensed 
with.  Often,  however,  a  balance  exercise  of  not  too  great  diffi- 
culty may  with  advantage  be  put  between  two  vigorous  trunk 
movements,  serving  thus  as  a  relief  from  or  break  in  what  might 
otherwise  be  too  long  or  severe  a  muscular  exertion. 

The  heel  raisings  and  knee  bendings  from  more  or  less  difficult 
starting  positions  may  be  practiced  at  first  as  balance  exercises 
and  later,  when  they  offer  little  or  no  further  difficulty  in  regard 
to  balance,  they  may  be  used  as  leg  movements  in  the  beginning 
of  the  lesson.  The  side  bending  and  forward  bending  of  trunk 
while  standing  on  one  foot,  as  well  as  the  toe-support  charge  and 
horizontal  half  standing  positions,  may  also  be  considered  ad- 
vanced lateral  trunk  and  back  exercises,  respectively,  and  take 
the  place  of  representatives  of  these  groups  in  the  lesson. 


(10)     Suspension  Exercises. 

In  these  the  body  is  suspended  on  the  arms,  the  typical  exer- 
cise being  the  (active)  hanging  position.  Whatever  modifications 
or  additional  movements  are  made  from  this  position,  such  as 
arm  bending,  momentary  suspension  on  one  arm  in  hand  travel- 
ing, swinging,  leg  movements,  etc.,  the  essential  features  are 
always  more  or  less  the  same.  These  are :  a  marked  chest  expan- 
sion ;  at  least  a  moderate  straightening  of  the  thoracic  spine ;  vigor- 
ous action  of  the  flexors  of  the  elbow,  of  the  muscles  which  bring 
the  arm  down  to  the  side  (latissimus,  teres  major  and  pectoralis 
major),  of  the  rotators  downward,  adductors  and  depressors  of 
the  scapula  (rhomboids,  pectoralis  minor  and  trapezius),  as  well 
as  of  the  deltoid  and  abdominal  muscles. 

The  chest  expansion  is  caused  partly  by  the  straightening  of 
the  thoracic  spine,  partly  by  the  great  tension  (passive  or  active) 
of  the  pectorals  and  latissimus.  The  straightening  of  the  thoracic 


112  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

spine  is  due  both  to  traction  of  the  lower  part  of  the  body  and  to 
the  contraction  of  the  erector  spinae  associated  with  the  action  of 
the  posterior  scapular  muscles. 

The  breathing  takes  place  under  the  same  modified  conditions 
as  occur  in  the  arching  movements.  The  thoracic  walls  being 
practically  fixed  in  the  expanded  position,  the  diaphragm  is  the 
chief  factor  of  the  respiratory  movements.  Its  descent  in  inspira- 
tion takes  place  against  increased  intra-abdominal  pressure,  due  to 
the  passive  tension  or  active  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles. 
Besides  these  modified  general  conditions  of  breathing,  many  of 
the  more  difficult  exercises  in  this  group  require  (or  strongly 
tempt  to)  a  temporary  cessation  of  respiration  altogether.  This 
is  always  apt  to  occur  when  extreme  muscular  efforts  are  made, 
especially  in  movements  of  the  arms  or  trunk.  The  chest  is  then 
made  rigid  by  the  contraction  of  the  abdominal  muscles,  forcing 
the  diaphragm  to  ascend  and  compress  the  air  inside  the  chest,  the 
glottis  having  been  previously  closed.  This  gives  the  muscles 
attached  to  the  chest  a  fixed  point  from  which  to  act  on  the  arms. 
Such  tendency  to  hold  the  breath  shoulcl,  of  course,  be  resisted 
and  full  breathing  insisted  on  in  all  but  the  most  severe  and  diffi- 
cult movements.  In  the  latter  the  performer  may  often  be 
obliged  to  time  his  breathing  to  correspond  with  a  given  phase 
of  the  exercise  in  which  a  partial  relaxation  of  the  muscular  effort 
is  feasible.  Thus,  by  proper  management  of  the  respiration  under 
difficulties,  valuable  training  and  increased  efficiency  of  the  breath- 
ing mechanism  may  result. 

Many  of  the  exercises  of  this  class  represent  fairly  violent 
muscular  work  of  an  intermittent  character — comparatively  brief 
and  powerful  efforts  alternating  with  relatively  long  intervals  of 
rest.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  necessary  apparatus  can  often 
only  be  used  by  one,  or  at  most  a  few  individuals  at  a  time.  By 
the  use  of  multiple  apparatus,  or  by  selecting  such  exercises  as 
can  be  done  on  ladders,  suspended  parallel  bars  and  the  boom 
(allowing  the  simultaneous  performance  of  several  pupils)  this 
difficulty  may  be  obviated  to  some  extent  and  the  continuity  of  the 
work  increased.  In  the  "pure"  types  of  suspension  exercises,  such 
as  the  simple  hanging  position  and  arm  bending  or  hand  traveling 
in  this  position,  the  work  is  of  a  somewhat  local  character.  The 
resistance  (the  body  weight)  to  be  overcome  by  the  working 
muscles  is  comparatively  great,  hence  repetitions  are  not  apt  to  be 
numerous. 

Besides  these  typical  or  "pure"  suspension  exercises,  there  are 
many  which  are  of  a  more  general  character,  embodying  some 
of  the  features  of  abdominal,  lateral  trunk,  "back  and  even  leg 
exercises.  Such  are,  for  example,  knee  upward  bending,  leg 


CLASS  IF  1C  A  TION  1 13 

raising  and  leg  circumduction  from  the  hanging  position ;  climb- 
ing on  ropes,  poles  or  window  ladders ;  complex  movements  on 
rings  and  horizontal  bar ;  the  fall-hanging  position  and  its  modifi- 
cations; combined  arm  stretching  and  bending  with  knee  bend- 
ing and  stretching  while  standing  on  one  or  both  feet  and 
grasping  a  bar,  ropes,  rings,  etc.  These  mixed  types  may  be 
easier  or  more  severe  than  the  pure  types  in  their  local  effects. 
Thus,  the  fall-hanging  position  (body  inclined  and  part  of  the 
weight  supported  on  the  heels)  is  easier  as  regards  the  work  of 
the  muscles  of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  as  regards  breathing,  but 
the  additional  action  of  the  lower  back  and  posterior  hip  muscles 
makes  it  an  exercise  of  more  general  character.  The  same  is 
true  of  the  pull-up  with  help  of  the  legs.  For  this  reason  such 
types  may  be  used  as  preparation  for  the  more  typical  suspension 
exercises  when  the  necessary  strength  in  the  arm  and  shoulder 
muscles  is  lacking.  On  the  other  hand,  such  exercises  as  starting 
swings,  circles,  upstarts,  etc.,  represent  more  violent  local  as  well 
as  more  widely  distributed  muscular  work,  owing  to  the  simulta- 
neous or  alternating  powerful  contraction  of  the  abdominal  or 
back  muscles. 

In  general,  it  is  not  wise  to  practice  exercises  of  this  class  (at 
least  the  more  violent  types)  without  some  preliminary  "warm- 
ing up"  in  the  shape  of  free-standing  movements  or  chest  weight 
exercises.  Otherwise  muscular  strains  and  distress  of  the  circu- 
latory and  respiratory  organs  are  apt  to  occur,  followed  by  unsat- 
isfactory general  feeling. 

Among  free-standing  exercises  the  arm  bendings  and  stretchings 
and  some  of  the  arm  Ringings  may  be  considered  related  to  sus- 
pension exercises.  They  produce  some  of  the  same  effects  in  a 
mild  way  and  are  somewhat  similar  in  their  muscular  mechanism. 
But  they  can  scarcely  be  considered  the  equivalent  of  suspension 
exercises  in  any  true  sense. 

Summary.  The  suspension  exercises  are,  then,  characterized 
by  their  developmental  effects  on  the  upper  trunk  muscles  and 
especially  on  those  of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  upper  extremity; 
by  their  tendency  to  strengthen  the  abdominal  wall,  to  increase 
the  mobility  of  the  chest  and  the  efficiency  of  the  whole  breathing 
mechanism ;  by  their  corrective  postural  effects  on  the  spine — 
lateral  as  well  as  antero-posterior ;  by  their  relative  high  intensity 
and  considerable  total  quantity  of  muscular  work.  They  are  also 
conducive  to  a  kind  of  skill  or  agility  which  may  be  urgently 
needed  in  some  emergency.  When  carefully  defined  and  correctly 
executed  they  are  most  valuable  exercises  and  should,  if  possible, 
be  represented  in  every  gymnastic  lesson. 


114  i;y.\r.VASTic  TEACHING 

(11)     Arm  Support  Exercises. 

These  comprise  the  front  rest,  back  rest  and  cross  rest  positions 
and  their  derivations.  While  employing  the  same  muscles  as 
those  principally  active  in  the  suspension  exercises  (with  the 
exception  that  the  triceps  takes  the  place  of  the  biceps  and  the 
deltoid  is  inactive),  they  do  so  in  an  entirely  different  way.  The 
pectorals  and  rhomboids  are  especially  active,  and  unless  the  latter 
are  reenforced  by  adequate  and  well-controlled  action  of  the 
trapezius  and  latissimus,  the  pectorals  tend  to  contract  excessively 
with  resultant  malposition  of  the  shoulder  girdle,  chest  and  upper 
back.  The  arm  support  exercises  should  not,  therefore,  be  classed 
with  suspension  exercises,  but  rather  be  put  in  a  group  by  them- 
selves, even  though  it  is  true  that  they  often  form  a  component 
part  of  many  complex  suspension  exercises — especially  on  the 
horizontal  bar  and  rings.  Because  of  their  relative  difficulty  and 
their  vicious  tendencies  they  should  be  used  with  caution,  and 
not  until  the  proper  strength  and  control  of  all  the  upper  trunk 
muscles,  especially  the  scapular,  have  been  acquired.  This 
applies  particularly  to  such  types  as  circles,  feints  and  the  more 
difficult  feats  on  the  horse ;  traveling,  repeated  swings,  "dips," 
etc.,  from  the  cross  rest  position  on  the  parallel  bars;  and  also 
many  similar  positions  and  movements  on  the  horizontal  bar  and 
rings.  The  majority  of  such  exercises  are  conducive  to  an 
undesirable  kind  of  muscular  development  as  well  as  faulty 
posture,  and  their  practice  should  be  discouraged. 

On  the  other  hand,  arm  support  exercises  find  their  most  useful 
and  unobjectionable  application  in  vaults  on  the  different  appara- 
tus. For  in  these  the  support  on  the  arms  is  only  brief,  and  the 
work  of  the  shoulder  blade  muscles  is  materially  aided  by  the 
momentum  gained  in  the  spring  from  the  floor.  This  makes  the 
maintenance  of  correct  position  of  shoulder  and  chest  less  diffi- 
cult. 

(12)     Jumping  and  Vaulting  (precipitant  exercises'). 

The  common  characteristics  of  exercises  of  this  class  are :  Great 
intensity  and  wide  distribution  of  muscular  work,  which,  while 
usually  somewhat  intermittent,  may  and  should  be  made  continu- 
ous enough  to  produce  marked  organic  stimulation.  The  various 
types  also  represent  many  or  all  of  the  special  features  of  leg, 
back,  abdominal,  lateral  trunk  and  arm  support  exercises,  while 
some  types  are  even  related  to  suspension  exercises.  They  all 
demand  and  cultivate  a  high  degree  of  coordination — well-timed 
and  properly  gauged  muscular  efforts,  involving  accurate  judg- 
ment of  height,  distance  and  bodily  momentum,  as  well  as  a  keen 


CLASS  IF  1C  A  T1ON  1 15 

sense  of  equilibrium.  In  this  last  respect  they  may  be  considered 
advanced  balance  movements. 

The  training  of  coordination  which  is  such  a  pronounced  fea- 
ture of  this  class  of  exercises  relates  not  only  to  the  proper  posi- 
tion of  the  parts  of  the  body  with  reference  to  each  other,  but  of 
the  body  as  a  whole  with  reference  to  space  or  to  external  objects. 
It  is  subjective  motor  training,  but  differs  from  that  furnished  by 
free-standing  gymnastic  exercises  in  that  the  body  as  a  whole  is 
moving.  This  involves  many  factors  which  are  either  absent  or 
only  present  to  a  slight  extent  in  most  free-standing  exercises. 
Such  are,  for  example,  judgment  of  height  and  distance  to  be 
traversed  by  the  body;  of  speed  and  bodily  momentum  to  be 
developed  and  managed  to  best  advantage;  of  the  best  weight 
distribution  over  the  point  of  support  and  the  proper  sequence  of 
widely  different  muscular  efforts  in  order  to  gain  the  most  advan- 
tageous leverage,  to  increase  or  deflect  momentum,  to  control  the 
poise  of  the  body,  etc.  Of  course,  the  eye  is  a  large  factor  in  the 
complex  nervous  processes  which  enter  into  these  coordinations. 
But  the  kinesthetic  sense  (a  term  used  to  designate  the  perception 
of  sensations  conveyed  by  the  numerous  and  varied  afferent 
nervous  impulses  from  the  muscles  and  joints)  is  even  of  more 
importance  than  the  sense  of  sight.  The  training  of  this  kines- 
thetic sense  is  a  feature  of  all  gymnastic  exercises,  but  more  so  in- 
this  than  any  other  class. 

The  result  of  abundant  practice  of  this  class  of  exercises  should 
be  an  increase  of  agility.  With  this  is  meant  ability  to  manage 
the  body  when  in  motion,  on  the  feet,  or  propelled  by  the  feet 
from  the  ground,  with  or  without  the  aid  of  the  arms.  When  the 
legs  alone  are  used  to  give  the  body  the  necessary  momentum  to 
traverse  a  given  space  we  call  it  jumping.  When  the  arms  are 
used  to  assist  in  propelling  or  in  guiding  the  movement  we  call  it : 
(1)  Vaulting,  if  the  arms  are  used  to  support  the  body;  (2) 
Swing-jump  (under swing,  hang- jump  or  some  such  term)  when 
the  body  is  momentarily  suspended  on  the  arms. 

The  different  types  of  exercises  belonging  to  this  group  are: 
(1)  Running  and  standing  high  and  broad  jumps;  hop,  step  and 
jump;  sideways  and  backward  jumps;  all  to  be  executed  in  speci- 
fied form  while  in  the  air  and  on  landing,  as  well  as  for  height  or 
distance.  (2)  Vertical  vaults  such  as  (front  and  rear)  squat  and 
straddle  vaults  and  their  combinations  (wolf  vault)  ;  knee  vault ; 
front  (sheep)  vault;  jump  (thief)  vault;  the  horizontal  vaults — 
face,  side  and  back  (and  oblique)  vaults  (or  front,  flank  and 
rear  vaults  as  they  are  usually  called).  These  may  be  executed 
on  the  side  or  long  horse,  buck,  vaulting  box,  parallel  bars,  sad- 
dle boom,  low  horizontal  bar  or  boom ;  with  or  without  a  pre- 
liminary run  (preferably  with).  In  all  there  is  only  a  momentary- 


116  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

or  relatively  brief  period  of  support  on  the  arms.  In  the  vertical 
vaults  (and  the  mounts  of  the  same  name)  the  briefer  the  period 
of  support  the  more  does  the  action  of  the  arms  resemble  the 
spring  of  the  legs,  the  more  animated  and  vigorous  does  the 
exercise  become  and  the  greater  are  the  chances  for  an  erect 
position  of  the  whole  body,  with  good  posture  of  head,  chest  and 
shoulders  during  its  performance.  (3)  Standing  or  (preferably) 
running  swing- jumps  with  the  use  of  flying  rings,  ropes  (one  or 
two),  horizontal  bar,  boom,  double  boom,  suspended  parallel  bars 
and  horizontal  ladder.  Here  the  body  is  momentarily  suspended 
on  the  arms,  following  the  spring  from  the  feet.  (4)  Mixed  types 
of  vaults  and  suspension  exercises,  such  as  side,  back  and  oblique 
vaults  on  the  double  boom,  with  suspension  on  one  arm  and  sup- 
port on  the  other — very  valuable  and  interesting  exercises  of  a 
truly  all-round  character.  (5)  Elementary  and  more  advanced 
tumbling,  such  as  forward  and  backward  rolls,  dives,  headspring, 
handsprings,  cartwheels  and  somersaults. 

In  general,  the  muscular  efforts  in  all  these  exercises  are  widely 
distributed,  relatively  violent  and  of  short  duration,  with  compara- 
tively long  intervals  of  rest.  If  the  efforts  succeed  each  other  too 
rapidly  and  are  continued  for  any  length  of  time,  the  limit  at 
which  circulation  and  respiration  can  keep  pace  with  the  muscular 
work  is  soon  reached.  It  is  not  wise  to  carry  the  exertion  to  the 
point  of  extreme  breathlessness.  Too  large  doses  of  this  type  of 
work  are  also  liable  to  produce  excessive  fatigue.  In  class  teach- 
ing, however,  the  danger  of  overdoing  is  not  very  great,  as  it  is 
usually  found  difficult  to  subdivide  the  class  into  sufficiently  small 
squads  to  allow  too  frequent  repetitions  of  the  exercises.  The 
trouble  is  more  often  the  other  way — too  large  squads,  inade- 
quate leadership  and,  therefore,  too  long  time  between  turns  and 
not  sufficient  continuity  of  the  work.  But  when  teaching  small 
groups,  or  in  individual  practice  outside  of  class,  the  danger  of 
overdoing  should  be  borne  in  mind.  Of  course,  pupils  with  weak 
hearts  or  abdominal  walls  should  not  be  allowed  to  practice  exer- 
cises of  this  class  without  careful  supervision  and  guidance  as 
regards  kind  and  amount. 

(13)     Running  and  Running  Games. 

These  may  be  classed  with  the  preceding  (as  precipitant  exer- 
cises) or  by  themselves.  The  latter  is  preferable.  A  short  run 
may  be  used  to  begin  the  lesson,  especially  on  a  cold  day,  serving 
then  the  purpose  of  general  stimulation  or  literally  of  warming 
up.  Or  it  may  be  put  in  at  (or  just  before)  the  end,  and  thus  by 
emphasizing  and  "clinching"  the  organic  effects  serve  as  a  fitting 
culmination  of  the  lesson.  This  is  highly  desirable  at  all  times 


CLASSIFICATION  117 

and  especially  when  the  jumping  and  vaulting  exercises  have  been 
inadequate  as  means  of  organic  stimulation,  owing  to  lack  of  time, 
space,  apparatus  or  proper  leadership. 

Systematic  practice  of  running  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the  best 
means — if  not  the  best — to  improve  "the  wind,"  i.e.,  to  strengthen 
the  heart  and  respiratory  organs,  to  increase  the  power  of  prompt 
and  perfect  adjustment  of  the  whole  circulatory  system  to  vary- 
ing degrees  of  activity — in  short,  to  bring  this  most  important  of 
all  bodily  mechanisms  to  a  high  state  of  efficiency  and  to  keep  it 
so.  Such  efficiency  is  so  intimately  connected  with,  and  basal  to, 
the  health  and  proper  functioning  of  all  other  organs,  that  in  a 
very  real  sense  it  is  the  conditioning  factor  and  index  of  endur- 
ance, vitality  and  general  bodily  condition. 

In  view  of  the  ease  with  which  pronounced  organic  stimula- 
tion may  be  produced  by  running,  and  the  comparative  facility 
with  which  the  amount  and  intensity  of  these  effects  may  be 
gauged  and  regulated,  as  well  as  the  almost  universal  availability 
of  this  form  of  exercise,  no  gymnastic  lesson  should  be  considered 
complete  without  it. 

(14)     Respiratory  Exercises. 

It  may  not  always  be  desirable,  or  even  safe,  to  dismiss  a  class 
while  in  a  state  of  high  organic  activity — heart  and  lungs  working 
hard,  skin  flushed  and  perspiring.  If  the  jumping,  vaulting  and 
running  have  been  vigorous  and  prolonged  enough  to  produce 
such  a  marked  general  reaction,  it  is  usually  best  to  keep  the 
class  a  few  minutes  more,  until  the  circulation  and  respiration 
have  begun  to  return  to  normal.  This  reduces  the  chances  for 
accidents  in  the  way  of  possible  injury  to  weak  hearts  when  tak- 
ing a  bath.  (Where  there  are  no  facilities  for  bathing  it  is  per- 
haps best  not  to  carry  the  organic  stimulation  to  a  point  involving 
too  great  activity  of  the  skin.)  To  facilitate  the  return  to  a  more 
quiet  and  normal  bodily  condition  the  lesson  may  be  concluded 
with  a  few  exercises  of  progressively  diminishing  intensity,  and 
which  at  the  same  time  call  into  use  all  the  auxiliary  forces  of 
the  circulation. 

The  kinds  of  exercises  most  suitable  for  this  purpose  are 
rhythmic  leg  movements  such  as  ordinary  marching,  toe  march- 
ing, and  "balance"  marching;  simple  heel  raising  and  knee  bend- 
ing; the  different  arm  raisings,  rotations  and  stretchings  in  slow 
breathing  rhythm,  or  combination  of  these  with  heel  raising  and 
knee  bending.  Simple  deep  and  slow  breathing,  without  any  arm 
or  leg  movements,  but  preferably  with  a  slight  backward  bending 
of  head,  is  perhaps  as  effective  a  respiratory  exercise  as  any.  It 
may  very  well  be  the  last,  as  well  as  the  first,  exercise  of  the 
lesson. 


118  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

By  the  alternating  contractions  and  relaxations  of  large  muscu- 
lar masses  and  the  alternating  flexion  and  extension  in  the  joints 
involved  in  rhythmic  leg  and  arm  movements,  the  valvular  mech- 
anism in  the  veins  of  the  extremities  is  made  to  do  full  duty, 
thereby  reducing  the  peripheral  resistance  to  be  overcome  by  the 
heart.  Similarly,  the  deep,  measured  breathing  causes  a  more 
powerful  thoracic  aspiration — literally  a  suction  exerted  on  the 
great  veins  entering  the  chest — than  shallow,  rapid  breathing.  All 
these  factors  aid  the  venous  and  lymphatic  flow,  supply  the  means 
for  a  greater  output  at  each  systole,  and  so  materially  ease  or 
at  least  steady  the  heart's  action.  Blood  pressure  falls  more 
gradually  and  evenly,  and  without  the  preliminary  rise  which 
probably  always  occurs  when  violent  exercise  suddenly  ceases. 

While  breathing  exercises  do  not  cause  more  oxygen  to  be 
taken  up  by  the  blood  passing  through  the  lungs,  as  is  popularly 
supposed  (the  arterial  blood  at  all  times  being  practically  satu- 
rated with  oxygen),  they  are  valuable  for  many  other  reasons. 
Besides  aiding  the  circulation  they  cultivate  mobility  of  the  chest; 
cause  a  free  flow  of  blood  and  lymph  in  the  more  remote  and  less 
completely  used  portions  of  the  lungs  and  so  favor  the  nutrition 
of  these  parts ;  they  lead  to  a  straightening  of  the  thoracic  spine, 
and  a  strengthening  of  the  muscles  of  inspiration ;  by  the  more 
complete  descent  of  the  diaphragm  and  the  greater  variations  in 
intra-abdominal  pressure  they  influence  favorably  the  functions 
of  the  liver  and  other  abdominal  organs.  They  also  give  oppor- 
tunity for  training  the  whole  breathing  mechanism  to  efficient  and 
economical  action. 

The  arm  movements,  while  not  increasing  the  total  capacity  of 
the  chest,  undoubtedly  lead  to  maximum  expansion  of  the  upper 
chest  and  encourage  lateral  costal  breathing.  In  all  these  respects 
breathing  exercises  are  most  effective  at  a  time  when  the  body,  as 
a  result  of  vigorous  exercise,  demands  plenty  of  air  and  the 
respiratory  centers  are  extremely  active. 

4.     THE  CONTENT  AND  CHARACTER  OF  THE  GYMNASTIC  LESSON. 

A  gymnastic  lesson  should  not  be  merely  a  certain  number  of 
exercises  chosen  at  random  or  on  the  spur  of  the  moment,  and 
arranged  in  a  haphazard  manner  as  the  fancy  or  impulse  of  the 
teacher  dictates.  When  that  is  the  case  loss  of  interest  and  dis- 
satisfaction are  sure  to  occur  sooner  or  later.  Nor  is  it  advisable 
to  use  habitually  and  under  different  conditions  standard  collec- 
tions of  exercises  or  "drills,"  however  well  chosen  and  arranged 
they  may  be  for  a  given  set  of  conditions.  The  only  occasion 
for  continued  practice  of  set  and  memorized  "drills"  is  in  cases 
where  merely  muscular  exercise  for  the  sake  of  organic  reaction 


CONTENT  AND  CHARACTER  119 

is  wanted,  and  .when  the  class  membership  is  fairly  homogeneous 
and  constant.  But  even  under  such  conditions  it  will  usually  be 
found  wise,  for  the  sake  of  conserving  interest,  if  for  no  other 
reason,  to  make  the  lessons  varied  and  progressive. 

When  equal  emphasis  is  to  be  placed  on  all  phases  of  the  work, 
the  construction  and  progression  of  gymnastic  lessons  become 
one  of  the  most  important  as  well  as  most  interesting  parts  of  the 
teacher's  work.  Each  lesson  should  then  be  the  concrete  expres- 
sion of  a  definite  hygienic  and  educational  thought.  It  should 
embody  the  teacher's  ideals,  standards  and  special  knowledge ;  it 
should  represent  his  understanding  of  the  conditions  to  be  met 
and  his  best  judgment  of  how  the  pupils'  time  and  efforts  are 
to  be  utilized  to  the  fullest  advantage. 

While  every  class  represents  a  special  set  of  conditions  to  be 
met  in  the  arrangement  of  each  lesson,  a  few  general  principles 
are  applicable  to  most  conditions. 

1.  Proper  distribution  of  tvork.     Do  not  work  the  class  so 
hard  in  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  that  a  considerable  number  of 
pupils  will  be  unable  to  do  justice  to  the  last  part.     Begin  with 
work  of  moderate  intensity  and  increase  gradually.    This  applies 
to  both  general  and  local  exercises. 

If,  for  example,  general  organic  work  is  begun  too  suddenly, 
or  in  too  large  doses,  it  might  be  necessary  to  slacken  the  pace 
after  a  while.  Any  such  reduction  in  the  rate  of  the  muscular 
activity  (except  for  very  brief  periods)  means  more  or  less  of 
a  loss  of  accumulated  organic  effects.  The  resulting  cooling  off 
and  partial  drying  give  rise  to  unsatisfactory  general  feelings,  a 
sense  of  lassitude  and  disagreeable  fatigue.  From  the  standpoint 
of  organic  stimulation  it  is  always  most  satisfactory  to  increase 
the  quantity  and  intensity  of  the  muscular  work  by  gradual  steps, 
and  to  finish  the  lesson  with  the  class  in  a  state  of  bodily  exhilara- 
tion, with  all  the  main  functions — circulation,  respiration  and 
elimination — fairly  active  or  just  beginning  to  subside  to  normal. 
Then  the  bath  is  most  enjoyable  and  refreshing,  fatigue  is  less 
marked,  or  is  so  mingled  with  a  sense  of  general  well-being  as 
to  be  pleasant  rather  than  otherwise,  and  the  danger  of  taking 
cold  is  lessened. 

2.  Warming   up.      Again,    we    might    begin    with    exercises 
demanding  short,  violent,  maximal  efforts  with  comparatively 
long  intervals  of   rest,  as,   for   example,   jumping,  vaulting  or 
climbing ;  or  very  powerful  local  exercises,  such  as  strong  abdomi- 
nal or  suspension  exercises.     Such  a  course  would  be  inadvisable 
for  several  reasons. 

In  the  first  place,  it  is  always  more  or  less  of  a  strain  on  the 
heart  and  arteries  to  have  sudden,  great  demands  made  upon 
them.  It  takes  a  little  time  for  the  circulatory  mechanism  to 


120  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

adjust  itself  to  the  varying  needs  of  the  organism.  Sudden, 
violent  exertion  while  the  arterial  tension  is  low  and  the  heart 
is  beating  at  a  moderate  rate  and  not  very  powerfully,  may  cause 
disagreeable  subjective  symptoms  and  is  not  beneficial  to  the 
heart  and  arteries.  An  illustration  of  this  is  the  painful  throb- 
bing in  the  side  and  front  of  the  neck  so  common  after  a  violent 
exercise  (for  example,  on  the  horizontal  bar)  has  been  performed 
without  any  preparation. 

In  the  second  place,  the  muscles  do  not  work  to  good  advan- 
tage under  such  conditions.  To  do  their  best  work  the  blood 
supply  of  the  muscles  must  be  commensurate  with  the  amount 
of  work  they  are  called  upon  to  do.  Such  is  not  the  case  when 
the  work  consists  of  violent  efforts  at  comparatively  long  inter- 
vals and  without  preparation.  Under  such  circumstances  dis- 
agreeable soreness  and  actual  strain  are  very  apt  to  occur.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  the  liability  to  strain  may  be  due  to  a 
failure  of  all  the  fibers  of  the  muscles  to  contract  simultaneously, 
a  small  number  or  small  portions  of  the  muscles  being  a  little 
ahead  or  behind  and  therefore  pulling  too  hard  and  sustaining 
injury.  However  that  may  be,  it  is  a  fact  that  the  peculiar  kind 
of  soreness  which  is  felt  immediately  and  often  lasts  a  long  time 
usually  occurs  when  a  violent  local  effort  is  made  without  any 
previous  "limbering  up." 

The  inadvisability  of  beginning  work  too  suddenly,  be  it  local 
or  general,  is  universally  recognized.  Trainers  of  men  and 
horses  are  well  aware  of  the  necessity  for  "warming  up"  before 
putting  their  charges  into  action.  It  is  economical  to  expend  a 
little  energy  in  this  way,  because  such  preparatory  work  starts 
up  the  vital  machinery  and  gets  it  running  smoothly  before  being 
subjected  to  the  real  stress.  Emotion  may  serve  the  same  pur- 
pose, e.g.,  anger,  fear  or  other  excitement. 

The  element  of  coordination  should  also  be  considered.  We 
cannot,  fpr  example,  do  delicate  work  immediately  after  violent 
exertion.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  more  difficult  to  control 
momentum,  make  the  right  kind  and  amount  of  effort  and  coor- 
dinate properly  in  a  difficult  exercise  without  preparation  than 
when  preliminary  work  has  been  done.  Gradual  warming  up 
and  judicious  distribution  of  the  work  are  therefore  of  advantage 
from  the  standpoint  of  economy,  less  liability  to  strain,  better 
effect  on  muscles  and  organs,  better  coordination,  better  work. 

3.  Progressive  organic  activity  as  a  guide  and  index  of  the 
rate  of  work.  In  a  quiet  condition,  such  as  obtains  when  sitting 
down,  reading,  etc.,  the  bulk  of  the  blood  is  in  the  cavities  of  the 
body — abdomen,  chest,  head.  The  venous  and  lymphatic  circu- 
lations are  sluggish.  In  order  to  do  vigorous  muscular  work  the 
bulk  of  the  blood  must  be  flowing  through  the  muscles  at  a  fast 


CONTENT  AND  CHARACTER  121 

rate  and  high  pressure.  This  change  of  relative  accumulation 
and  increase  in  rate  of  flow  and  pressure  begin  to  take  place  soon 
after  active  work  has  started;  the  muscular  arterioles  dilate  and 
the  local  pressure  (in  the  muscular  arteries)  rises  (this  is  also 
true  of  the  cutaneous  vascular  area),  while  the  arteries  of  the 
great  cavities,  notably  those  of  the  abdominal  cavity  (the  so- 
called  splanchnic  area),  become  more  constricted. 

In  order  to  make  this  circulatory  adjustment  in  the  most 
satisfactory  way,  and  always  sufficient  to  correspond  to  the 
amount  of  work  demanded  from  the  muscles,  the  lesson  is  begun 
with  exercises  involving  only  a  moderate  expenditure  of  energy 
at  any  given  moment,  but  of  a  continuous  character  (such  as 
marching).  These  are  followed  by  exercises  of  gradually  in- 
creasing intensity,  until  the  circulatory  and  respiratory  organs 
have  reached  the  rate  of  activity  which  corresponds  to  the  great- 
est demands  we  intend  to  make  on  the  muscles.  This  state  of 
activity  is  then  kept  up  for  as  long  a  time  as  seems  wise  or  prac- 
ticable. The  lesson  may  then  be  concluded  with  a  few  exercises 
of  less  intensity,  calculated  to  aid  circulation  and  respiration  and 
to  help  bring  the  body  back  to  an  approximately  normal  condi- 
tion, without,  however,  losing  the  accumulated  reactions — such 
as  warmth,  flushing,  perspiration — to  any  considerable  extent, 
unless  special  conditions  so  demand.  Often  the  final  tapering-off 
exercises  may  be  omitted,  the  walking  back  to  the  dressing  room, 
changing  of  clothes  or  undressing  and  taking  a  bath  serving  the 
same  purpose. 

Occasionally  it  may  be  advisable  to  begin  more  abruptly — e.g., 
with  a  short  run — by  way  of  stimulation,  especially  in  cold 
weather.  But  do  not  make  it  too  long. 

The  expenditure  of  nervous  energy,  represented  by  the  amount 
of  attention,  coordination  and  "pure"  mental  work  involved  in 
the  exercises  also  varies,  but  does  not  necessarily  follow  the  curve 
of  organic  activity.  For  reasons  which  have  already  been  dis- 
cussed (see  Order  Exercises)  it  is  generally  advisable  to  begin 
fairly  suddenly  in  this  respect,  giving  work  which  demands  con- 
siderable mental  concentration,  especially  as  regards  attention. 
It  is  necessary  thus  to  focus  and  stimulate  the  attention  in  order 
to  produce  the  proper  mental  attitude  and  cooperation  for  the 
work  that  is  to  follow.  Later  it  may  be  well  to  ease  up  a  little 
in  this  respect,  directing  the  mental  efforts  more  to  the  actual 
doing  of  vigorous  work  than  to  alertness  and  readiness  for  rapid 
changes.  The  element  of  difficulty  of  coordination  also  varies, 
often  being  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  intensity  of  organic  action 
or  localized  muscular  work,  but  in  a  general  way  there  should 
be  a  progressive  increase  in  this  respect,  the  more  complex  and 
difficult  exercises  being  placed  near  the  end. 


122  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

4.  Totality  or  all-round  character  of  the  gymnastic  lesson. 
It  is  generally  better  to  have  each  lesson  represent  all-round 
exercise,  rather  than  have  a  preponderance  of  one  kind  of  work 
in  one  lesson  and  another  kind  in  the  next,  and  so  on.    Even  if 
the  time  allotted  is  scant  and  the  lesson  in  consequence  must  be 
short,  it  is  always  possible  by  careful  planning  and  selection  to 
have  all  the  main  features  embodied  in  the  different  classes  of 
exercises  (described  in.  a  previous  chapter)  represented  more  or 
less  adequately  in  each  lesson.     Rounding  out  a  lesson  in  this 
manner   not   only   gives   greater   immediate   satisfaction   to   the 
pupils  in  the  way  of  bodily  sensations  and  reactions,  and  avoids 
excessive  local  fatigue,  but  also  insures  variety  and  so  helps  sus- 
tain attention  and  conserve  interest. 

When  time  allows,  it  is  wise  to  have  each  one  of  the  main 
groups  of  exercises  represented,  some  of  them — especially  the 
various  trunk  movements — more  than  once.  When  repetition 
of  any  given  class  of  exercises  is  deemed  advisable,  the  types 
chosen  should  preferably  be  as  different  as  possible.  They  may 
be  given  successively  or  alternate  with  representatives  of  other 
groups.  The  latter  is  usually  preferable,  as  it  facilitates  proper 
distribution  of  the  muscular  work  and  the  progressive  increase 
in  its  intensity.  Occasionally  it  may  be  advisable  to  give  two  or 
more  exercises  belonging  to  the  same  group  successively  in  order 
to  get  sufficiently  pronounced  local  effects  without  too  much 
repetition  of  the  same  exercise.  Or  it  may  be  done  as  a  matter 
of  convenience,  e.g.,  in  apparatus  work.  Here  there  are  usually 
sufficient  intervals  of  rest  between  the  exercises  to  avoid  .excessive 
local  or  general  fatigue. 

The  groups  of  exercises  which  it  is  most  desirable  to  have 
abundantly  represented  usually  include  a  number  of  widely  differ- 
ing types,  or  types  of  an  all-round  character.  Such  is  the  case, 
for  example,  in  the  groups  called  Compensatory  exercises,  Back 
movements  and  Charges.  It  is  also  true  of  so-called  "mixed" 
Suspension  exercises,  such  as  climbing  on  ropes  and  ladders,  and 
of  Jumping  and  Vaulting.  Aside  from  emphasizing  some  very 
desirable  features  more  or  less  neglected  in  ordinary  activities, 
repeated  occurrence  of  such  exercises  may  be  made  to  contribute 
to  the  all-round  character  of  the  lesson. 

5.  General  lesson  plan.     When  the  amount  of  time  and  the 
equipment  are  such  as  to  allow  a  complete  and  elaborate  lesson, 
including  apparatus  work,  some  such  general  plan  as  that  used 
in  German  gymnastics  and  also  more  or  less  in  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
work  seems  on  the  whole  most  satisfactory  and  best  suited  to 
the  conditions  in  this  country.     Such  a  plan  would  comprise  at 
least  two,  sometimes  three  or  four,  main  divisions  of  the  lesson, 


CONTENT  AND  CHARACTER  123 

viz.,  marching,  free-standing  exercises,  apparatus  work,  a  run 
or  running  game  or  a  dance. 

The  amount  of  time  allotted  to  each  division  will,  of  course, 
vary  with  the  age,  sex,  interests,  etc.,  of  the  class,  and  with  the 
total  amount  of  time  given  to  the  lesson.  In  schools  and  colleges 
where  from  thirty-five  to  forty-five  minutes  of  actual  working 
time  is  available,  from  five  to  ten  minutes  might  profitably  be 
spent  on  marching,  twelve  to  eighteen  minutes  on  free-standing 
exercises,  twelve  to  eighteen  minutes  on  apparatus  work,  and 
five  to  eight  minutes  on  the  final  run,  marching  and  breathing 
exercises.  A  game  or  a  dance  would  usually  take  more  time 
than  a  run.  This  might  be  gained  by  correspondingly  shortening 
one  or  all  of  the  other  divisions.  When  there  is  no  apparatus, 
the  time  given  to  the  other  parts  might  be  increased.  Or  a  game 
of  vigorous  character  or  some  form  of  athletic  competition  could 
be  substituted. 

6.  Arrangement.     For    reasons    already    stated    some    lively 
marching,  when  feasible,  seems  to  be  the  most  suitable  intro- 
ductory exercise.     This  is  followed  by  a  series  of  from  seven 
to  sixteen  free-standing  exercises,  individually  of  as  varied  char- 
acter but  collectively  as  comprehensive  as  possible.     Indeed,  this 
series    should    in    itself    be    a    complete    though    more    or    less 
abbreviated  lesson. 

While  serving  partly  the  purpose  of  preparation — warming 
up — for  the  more  powerful  apparatus  exercises,  this  preliminary 
series  of  free-standing  exercises  should  be  so  selected,  planned 
and  taught  as  to  emphasize  and  give  large  returns  in  posture  and 
general  subjective  motor  training.  It  is  through  these  free- 
standing, definite,  more  or  less  localized  movements,  that  kines- 
thetic  sense  training  (especially  as  applied  to  posture),  that 
localized  muscular  control  and  harmonious  muscular  develop- 
ment, are  chiefly  to  be  attained.  In  these  ensemble  movements, 
too,  the  spirit  of  cooperation  and  united  group  action  is  fostered, 
the  attention  and  will  are  trained  and  pupils  are  encouraged  to 
habits  of  discipline,  order  and  alacrity.  In  striving  to  make  the 
exercises  effective  in  all  these  respects,  the  teacher  finds  scope 
for  all  his  technical  knowledge  and  teaching  skill,  all  his  enthu- 
siasm and  vitality,  in  short,  for  the  fullest  expression  of  his 
whole  personality. 

7.  The  outline  of  the  series  of  free-standing  exercises  has 
been  indicated  in  the  discussion  of  the  different  classes  of  move- 
ments.   Their  order  and  sequence  are  approximately  the  same  as 
that  in  which  they  were  enumerated.    A  Leg  movement  or  two, 
preferably  combined  with  arm  movements,  seems  the  most  suit- 
able way  to  begin  the  series,  because  exercises  of  this  class  are 


124  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

especially  effective  in  equalizing  the  circulation,  and  also  because 
they  can  be  presented  and  executed  in  a  brisk  and  lively  manner 
and  so  get  the  pupils  into  the  work  most  readily.  After  these 
an  Arching  and  then  a  Compensatory  movement  fit  in  very  well, 
the  former  by  way  of  suggesting  good  posture,  compelling  a 
general  straightening  or  stretching  and  good  chest  expansion ; 
the  latter  similarly  inducing  a  limbering  up  and  straightening  of 
the  lower  back,  as  well  as  contributing  to  the  gradual  increase 
of  general  muscular  work,  especially  when  repeated  rhythmically. 
After  this  the  order  is  immaterial ;  however,  a  Lateral  Trunk 
exercise  seems  most  satisfying  at  this  point.  Next  may  follow 
a  Shoulder  Blade  exercise  (e.g.,  arm  bending  and  stretching), 
then  a  Balance  exercise,  an  Abdominal,  a  second  Lateral  Trunk 
and  a  General  Back  exercise  or  a  Charge  or  other  all-round 
movement;  finally  a  toe  jump,  a  run  in  place  or  a  free-standing 
jump  and  then  a  Breathing  exercise  to  conclude  the  series. 

8.  Modifications.     It   will   not   always   be    feasible   or   even 
desirable  to  use  as  many  free-standing  exercises  in  one  lesson 
as  indicated  in  the  preceding  paragraph.     If  the  majority  of  the 
movements  are  well  executed  and  repeated  rhythmically  a  con- 
siderable number  of  times,  the  quantity  of  muscular  work  repre- 
sented by  such  an  elaborate  series  might  easily  exceed  the  strength 
or  endurance  of  the  class.    In  any  case  such  a  series  would  take 
at  least  twenty  minutes  to  teach  adequately.    It  would  be  suitable 
for  a  lesson  in  which  there  is  to  be  no  apparatus  work,  or  pos- 
sibly as  preliminary  work  in  a  lesson  with  apparatus  for  strong, 
well-trained  classes  (of  young  men,  for  example),  in  which  there 
would  be  no  question  of  ability  to  stand  hard  and  fast  work. 
But  ordinarily  a  series  of  from  nine  to  twelve  movements  is 
sufficient.    Occasionally  it  may  be  necessary  to  give  even  a  smaller 
number.     One  introductory  Leg  and  Arm  movement,  instead  of 
two,  would  then  be  sufficient.     The  special  Shoulder  Blade,  the 
Balance  or  the  General  Back  movement,  one  or  all,  or  the  Jump 
and   Breathing  exercise  may  then  be  omitted.     The  all-round 
character  of  the  series  may  still  be  preserved  by  choosing  types 
and  combinations  which  embody  the  features  of  several  classes 
of   movements.      This   is   not   difficult   when   the   principles   of 
combination  and  alternation  of  definite  rhythmical  exercises  are 
properly  applied. 

9.  Variety  in  selection,  combination  and  sequence.     While  it 
is  of  advantage  to  have  some  such,  general  plan  or  outline  in 
mind  as  a  guide  in  the  selection  and  arrangement  of  the  free- 
standing exercises,  the  exact  order  and  sequence  in  which  the 
representatives  of  the  different  groups  are  arranged   (at  least 
after  the  Compensatory  movement),  need  not  be  constant.     In 
fact,  it  will  necessarily  be  varied  if  good  progression  and  proper 


CONTENT  AND  CHARACTER  125 

distribution  are  given  due  consideration.  Then  the  order  will 
be  determined  by  two  main  factors.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
relative  intensity  of  the  exercise,  its  suitability  with  reference 
to  progressive  organic  stimulation.  The  other  may  be  summed 
up  in  the  one  word  variety.  Make  the  selection  and  arrange- 
ment such  that  each  exercise  shall  be  strikingly  different  from 
the  preceding  and  following.  Vary  the  style,  the  type,  the  mus- 
cular localization,  the  rhythm  and  even  the  appearance  of  suc- 
cessive exercises.  If  for  any  reason  it  is  necessary  to  have  two 
or  more  which  closely  resemble  each  other,  place  them  as  far 
apart  as  possible.  This  applies  particularly  to  exercises  in  which 
posture  training  is  emphasized.  These  are  always  sharply 
localized  movements,  often  done  slowly,  generally  on  command 
(at  least  in  the  beginning),  and  positions  are  or  should  be  well 
sustained  for  longer  periods  of  time  than  in  any  other  exercises. 
They  are  difficult  of  execution,  require  earnest  and  discrimi- 
nating effort  on  the  part  of  the  pupils,  careful  guidance,  firm 
insistence  and  strong  stimulation  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
To  have  several  such  types  in  succession  would  be  both  tedious 
and  locally  fatiguing  to  the  pupils,  as  the  muscular  localization 
is  very  similar  in  most  of  them.  It  is  therefore  of  advantage 
to  distribute  exercises  of  this  type  judiciously  through  the  lesson, 
to  precede  and  follow  them  by  lively  and  more  general  exercises. 

The  above  applies  also  to  any  new  or  difficult  exercise  requir- 
ing careful,  deliberate  presentation  and  repeated  on  command  a 
number  of  times.  Do  not  have  several  such  in  succession,  but 
alternate  them  with  simple  or  familiar  exercises  which  can  be 
started  without  much  or  any  explanation  and  executed  rhythmi- 
cally from  the  outset  or  after  being  done  to  command  only  once 
or  twice. 

Compound  and  even  simple  movements  may  often  appear  simi- 
lar to  the  pupils,  though  essentially  different,  by  being  of  similar 
type  and  by  being  combined  or  alternated  with  the  same  or 
similar  elements.  This  is  to  be  carefully  avoided  in  successive 
exercises.  For  example,  a  leg  flinging  forward  should  not  be 
placed  immediately  before  or  after  a  leg  flinging  sideways. 
Again,  if  a  trunk  bending  sideways  is  to  be  followed  by  a  for- 
ward bending,  it  would  not  be  wise  to  alternate  each  with  an 
arm  bending  or  stretching,  even  though  the  alternating  move- 
ment takes  place  in  a  different  direction  in  each  case.  For 
although  the  muscular  work  is  different  in  some  essential  respects, 
the  similarity  of  type  or  style  would  be  most  apparent  to  the 
pupils. 

Vary  the  starting  positions.  While  the  majority  of  the  move- 
ments will  perhaps  be  done  from  the  fundamental  position,  it  is 
often  convenient  and  sometimes  necessary  in  careful  progression 


126  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

to  do  movements  from  derived  starting  positions.  Either  the 
arms  or  the  legs  or  both,  or  even  the  trunk,  may  be  in  a  position 
different  from  the  fundamental  position ;  but  the  essential  move- 
ment begins  from  and  returns  to  this  derived  position  repeatedly. 
In  any  such  case  avoid  using  similar  starting  positions  for  suc- 
cessive exercises.  The  principal  exception  to  this  is  the  frequent 
use  of  the  stride  standing  position  (feet  apart)  in  the  beginning 
of  any  series  of  lessons,  especially  with  untrained  classes  and 
always  with  classes  of  young  children. 

Avoid  giving  too  numerous  and  too  powerful  shoulder  blade 
exercises.  At  any  rate  do  not  have  them  too  near  together. 
While  valuable  for  the  increase  of  tone  and  control  of  the  muscles 
of  the  shoulder  girdle  and  therefore  important  exercises  in  pos- 
ture training,  if  given  to  the  point  of  excessive  local  fatigue  the 
pupils  cannot  or  will  not  do  them  correctly.  This  not  only 
minimizes  the  effects  of  such  movements  (if  it  does  not  defeat 
their  special  purpose  altogether),  but  also  leads  to  loss  of  interest. 
The  same  applies  to  carrying  the  arms  high  in  derived  starting 
positions.  As  arm  movements  and  positions  of  all  kinds  belong 
in  the  category  of  shoulder  blade  exercises,  and  as  they  are  par- 
ticularly suitable  for  combination  or  alternation  with  other  move- 
ments, it  is  always  a  great  temptation  to  use  them  too  much. 
Indeed,  when  planning  lessons  in  advanced  stages  of  progression 
it  becomes  a  most  difficult  problem  how  to  avoid  excessive  use 
of  such  movements.  At  any  time  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
have  similar  types  recur  too  often.  Thus  use  arm  bending  and 
stretching  in  one  case,  arm  raising  or  flinging  in  the  next,  etc., 
varying  the  direction  of  the  movement  each  time. 

10.  The  apparatus  work  should  include  representatives  of 
the  two  principal  classes :  Suspension  exercises,  and  Vaulting  or 
Jumping.  Arm  support  exercises,  other  than  the  transitory 
positions  occurring  in  vaults  or  as  parts  of  complex  suspension 
exercises  on  the  horizontal  bar,  are  of  questionable  value  and 
should  not  be  given  much  prominence,  if  used  at  all.  Powerful 
trunk  exercises,  or  combined  trunk  and  suspension  exercises  at 
the  bar  stalls  may  be  included  in  the  apparatus  work  and  given 
in  addition  to  or  in  place  of  one  of  the  others.  The  number  and 
kind  of  exercises  at  each  apparatus  will  vary  with  the  ability  of 
the  pupils,  the  stage  in  the  progression,  the  amount  of  time  avail- 
able, and  the  character  of  the  other  work  in  the  lesson.  When 
several  exercises  are  given,  they  should  be  as  different  in  type 
as  possible.  They  should  be  chosen  with  a  view  to  supplement 
each  other  and  the  work  in  the  rest  of  the  lesson,  as  regards 
muscular  localization,  etc.,  so  as  to  contribute  to  the  all-round 
character  of  the  lesson.  Exercises  on  the  horse,  buck,  parallel 
bars  and  low  horizontal  bar  should  preferably  be  of  a  type  which 


CONTENT  AND  CHARACTER  127 

can  be  executed  quickly  (chiefly  vaults),  so  that  pupils  will  not 
have  to  spend  too  much  time  awaiting  their  turn.  It  is  also  best 
to  start  them  with  a  run,  except  in  the  case  of  low  horizontal 
bar  exercises.  Here  the  same  types  may  be  done  with  a  stand- 
ing start,  partly  because  it  is  safer,  and  partly  because  practice 
in  this  is  desirable.  On  suspension  apparatus  sufficient  rapidity 
of  the  work  may  be  attained  by  letting  several  pupils  do  the 
exercises  at  the  same  time  whenever  possible — as  on  horizontal 
ladders,  suspended  parallel  bars,  booms  and  window  ladders. 
On  ropes,  poles,  rope  ladders  and  the  high  horizontal  bar  rapid 
and  continuous  work  is  possible  only  with  multiple  apparatus. 
In  any  case  small  squads  (preferably  not  more  than  eight  in 
each),  efficient  leadership,  good  organization,  management, 
grading  and  rational  progression  are  essential  for  rapidity  and 
continuity  of  apparatus  work. 

When  there  are  many  squads  the  work  of  the  leaders  will  be 
facilitated  by  having  the  exercises  at  each  apparatus*  systema- 
tized and  arranged  in  progressive  series  on  typewritten  or  printed 
cards.  Or  the  apparatus  work  for  each  squad  may  be  written  out 
and  handed  to  the  leaders  at  or  before  each  lesson.  This  is 
probably  the  -most  satisfactory  method  from  the  standpoint  of 
careful  progression  and  well-balanced  lessons ;  but  it  requires 
much  time  and  thought  and  intelligent  cooperation  by  a  well- 
trained  leaders'  corps.  It  would  be,  perhaps,  too  difficult  to 
manage  when  the  classes  are  very  large,  with  many  squads,  or 
when  the  teacher  has  to  handle  daily  many  widely  differing 
classes  with  insufficient  assistance.  Under  such  conditions 
multiple  apparatus,  and  all  the  squads  doing  the  same  exercise 
under  the  teacher's  direct  supervision,  are  probably  the  best 
solution. 

11.  Running,  marching  and  breathing  exercises.  Owing  to 
its  intermittent  character,  it  is  always  difficult  to  get  apparatus 
work  done  in  a  satisfactory  manner  and  at  the  same  time  with 
sufficient  continuity  to  preserve,  much  less  increase,  the  cumu- 
lative organic  reactions  produced  by  the  free-standing  exercises. 
It  is  therefore  particularly  desirable  to  give  a  run  or  a  lively 
running  game  immediately  after  the  apparatus  work.  When 
time  allows,  this  is  followed  by  a  little  marching — balance  and 
toe  marching  rather  than  rapid  changes  of  direction.  Breathing 
exercises  may  be  done  while  marching,  or  separately. 

Summary.  The  gymnastic  lesson  should  then  be  planned  and 
arranged  in  a  way  to  give  the  pupils  the  utmost  value  for  their 
time  and  effort.  The  values  should  consist  in  vigorous,  all- 
round  exercise,  leading  to  immediate  and  marked  organic  stimu-' 
lation  with  a  pleasant  sense  of  fatigue  and  bodily  well-being; 
adequate  training  in  general  subjective  motor  control  with  espe- 


128  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

cial  emphasis  on  good  posture ;  an  equalizing  influence  on  growth 
and  a  harmonious  muscular  development.  To  produce  these 
effects  it  should  be  varied  and  comprehensive  in  character;  it 
should  call  for  sufficient  quantity  and  gradually  increasing  inten- 
sity of  muscular  work.  The  exercises  should  be  selected  and 
arranged  with  reference  to  their  special  and  general  features  in 
such  a  way  as  to  fit  into  and  supplement  each  other,  each  enhanc- 
ing the  effects  of  the  preceding  and  preparing  the  way  for  the 
following.  Finally  the  lesson  should  be  taught  and  managed  in 
a  way  to  accomplish  the  special  purpose  of  each  exercise,  and 
with  sufficient  speed  and  continuity  to  make  the  general  effects 
of  all  cumulative.  Such  a  well-balanced  and  carefully  rounded 
lesson  will  be  most  likely  to  interest  the  pupils,  to  enlist  their 
enthusiastic  and  intelligent  cooperation  and  to  elicit  the  whole- 
hearted, vigorous  response  necessary  to  make  it  effective. 

» 

5.     PROGRESSION. 

From  the  standpoint  of  interest  as  well  as  all-round  effective- 
ness, rational  progression  is  essential  in  gymnastic  work.  It  is 
particularly  important  when  subjective  motor  training  is  one  of 
the  phases  of  the  work  to  be  emphasized.  Lacking  the  element 
of  progression,  no  work  can  be  of  much  educational  value.  Nor 
can  pupils  be  expected  to  remain  interested  for  any  length  of 
time  in  work  in  which  they  find  nothing  further  to  learn,  or  in 
which  their  growing  strength  and  ability  are  not  constantly  given 
full  scope,  are  not  put  to  new  and  increasingly  difficult  tests. 
Their  instinct  for  progression  must  be  satisfied,  to  some  extent 
at  least,  even  when  the  main  object  of  the  work  is  muscular 
exercise  for  the  sake  of  organic  stimulation.  Otherwise  they 
will  not  long  continue  to  do  it  with  regularity  and  persevering 
effort,  but  will  either  lapse  into  habits  of  bodily  inactivity,  or 
will  rely  solely  upon  the  occasional  indulgence  in  some  game  or 
sport  which  will  give  them  a  certain  amount  of  muscular  exer- 
cise, even  though  it  be  inadequate  and  not  always  adapted  to 
their  special  needs. 

Progression  is  one  of  the  important  factors  in  adapting  the 
work  to  conditions.  It  is  closely  bound  up  with  selection,  defini- 
tion, classification,  combination  and  arrangement  of  exercises; 
with  the  planning  of  lessons ;  with  the  style  and  character  of  the 
work ;  with  the  methods  and  technique  of  teaching  it ;  with  main- 
taining attention  and  discipline,  and  thus  with  control  and  class 
management. 

Progress  may  consist  in  learning  to  do  somewhat  familiar 
exercises  better — with  more  exactness,  vigor  and  completeness — 


PROGRESSION  129 

and  therefore  more  effectively.  Or  it  may  consist  in  learning  to 
do  new,  more  complex,  difficult  and  powerful  exercises.  Both 
are  elements  in  progression.  The  former  implies  repetition ;  the 
latter  change,  additional  features,  variety. 

Progression  as  applied  to  Gymnastic  Lessons. 

What  might  be  called  progression  zvithin  the  lesson  was  indi- 
cated in  the  preceding  chapter.  It  was  shown  to  consist  of  fairly 
regular  and  steady  increase  of  intensity  and  rate  of  muscular 
work  in  successive  exercises,  with  corresponding  progressive 
increase  of  organic  activity.  Then,  too,  progression  is  from 
general  to  local  and  again  to  more  general,  all-round  exercises. 
There  is  also  progression,  though  less  regular,  as  regards  co- 
ordination. The  more  complex  and  difficult  movements,  whether 
.  free-standing  or  apparatus  work,  are  generally  placed  in  the  latter 
half  of  the  lesson.  Such  a  progressive  arrangement  of  exercises 
within  the  lesson  represents  the  most  economical  use  of  the 
pupil's  time  and  efforts,  and  is  conducive  to  the  best  work  as 
well  as  the  most  pronounced  and  lasting  effects  of  the  lesson  as 
a  whole. 

Progression  from  lesson  to  lesson  consists  of  an  increase  in 
the  number,  complexity,  difficulty,  speed,  precision  and  power 
of  the  exercises  of  which  successive  lessons  are  composed. 

In  the  free-standing  exercises  it  may  mean  gradual  change  in 
the  style  and  character  of  the  work :  from  less  definite,  relatively 
complex  exercises  executed  rhythmically  without  holding  posi- 
tions and  with  little  attention  to  posture  or  other  details,  to  more 
definite,  relatively  simpler  movements,  done,  partly  at  least,  in 
response  to  command,  and  in  any  case  emphasizing  details  of 
execution — such  as  completeness  and  accuracy,  separation  of  the 
component  elements  by  holding  of  positions,  maintenance  of  good 
posture  throughout.  Further  progression  would  then  mean 
increased  complexity  without  loss  of  definiteness,  greater  speed 
and  more  continuity  of  movement.  It  would  involve,  besides, 
the  inclusion  of  increasingly  difficult  types,  the  use  of  more 
numerous  and  difficult  elements  in  the  combination  and  alterna- 
tion of  movements,  less  repetition  on  command,  more  frequent 
rhythmic  repetition,  more  varied  rhythms. 

Again,  progression  from  the  outset  may  be  from  the  simplest 
types  of  definite  exercises  done  chiefly  on  command  to  the  more 
complex  and  difficult  types  and  combinations,  with  increasing 
application  of  the  principle  of  rhythmic  continuity,  but  always 
retaining,  and  if  possible  increasing,  the  quality  of  definiteness. 

As  regards  the  apparatus  work,  progression  in  successive  les- 
sons will  mean  the  inclusion  of  a  greater  number  and  variety  of 


130  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

exercises,  as  well  as  more  difficult  and  powerful  types,  so  as  to 
take  into  full  account  the  pupil's  gain  in  strength  and  agility. 

Many  types  of  apparatus  exercises  can  be  done,  with  more  or 
less  modification,  on  more  than  one  apparatus.  In  careful  pro- 
gression, account  must  be  taken  of  the  varying  degrees  of  diffi- 
culty represented  by  doing  similar  types  on  different  apparatus. 
For  example,  a  squat  vault  is  done  more  easily  on  a  horse  with 
pommels  or  on  the  saddle  boom,  than  on  the  buck  or  low  hori- 
zontal bar.  It  should  therefore  be  practiced  on  the  former 
before  being  tried  on  the  latter.  For  the  same  reason,  a  straddle 
vault  should  first  be  done  on  the  buck,  next  on  the  horse  with 
pommels  or  the  saddle  boom,  then  on  a  horse  without  pommels 
and  lastly  on  the  low  horizontal  bar.  Again,  a  back  (rear)  vault 
might  be  tried  first  on  the  parallel  bars,  next  on  the  buck  and 
side  horse,  then  on  the  long  horse  and  finally  on  the  double  boom 
and  low  horizontal  bar.  Similar  considerations  will  determine 
the  choice  of  type  and  apparatus  in  many  other  vaults  as  well  as 
in  suspension  exercises. 

Repetition.  As  was  stated  in  a  previous  paragraph,  progression 
by  no  means  precludes  repetition.  When  for  any  reason  it  is  not 
feasible  or  desirable  to  progress  by  very  fine  and  gradual  steps, 
more  or  less  repetition  will  be  necessary.  Then  progression 
consists  in  doing  the  same  work  better.  This  may  be  applied 
to  the  whole  lesson,  or  to  any  part  of  it.  Thus  it  may  be  wise 
to  repeat  the  whole  lesson  from  two  to  five  times.  Or  the  free- 
standing exercises  may  be  repeated  several  times,  while  the 
apparatus  work  is  repeated  only  once  or  not  at  all.  Or  the 
reverse  may  be  the  best  procedure,  as,  for  example,  when  very 
little  apparatus  is  available,  or  with  classes  of  women  or  young 
children.  Again,  certain  types  of  exercises,  free-standing  as 
well  as  apparatus,  may  have  to  be  repeated  many  times  before 
the  majority  of  the  class  can  execute  them  in  a  satisfactory 
manner.  This  is  particularly  true  of  types  which  are  not  capable 
of  much  or  any  subdivision  or  simplification,  and  which  cannot 
be  led  up  to  by  gradual  steps  through  other  types.  Such  is  the 
case,  for  example,  with  charges  and  some  balance  movements 
among  free-standing  exercises,  and  with  many  vaults  and  sus- 
pension exercises. 

How  many  times  a  lesson  should  be  repeated,  as  a  whole  or  in 
part,  is  a  matter  depending  on  the  teacher's  judgment.  It  will 
vary  with  conditions.  Ideally,  perhaps,  each  lesson  should  be 
totally  different  from,  as  well  as  represent  a  distinct  advance  on, 
the  preceding.  But  this  is  rarely  feasible  in  all  respects.  The 
steps  in  the  progression  of  any  group  of  exercises  or  of  the 
lesson  as  a  whole  will  be  great  or  small,  and  repetitions  corre- 
spondingly more  or  less  numerous,  according  to  (1)  the  fre- 
quency and  amount  of  instruction — whether  once  or  three  times 


PROGRESSION  131 

a  week  or  daily,  whether  fifteen  minutes  or  an  hour;  (2)  the 
total  length  of  the  course  of  instruction — whether  six  weeks  or 
six  years;  (3)  the  kind  of  class — age,  sex,  previous  training, 
mental  attitude  toward  the  work,  etc. ;  (4)  the  availability  or 
lack  of  apparatus;  (5)  the  abundance  or  scarcity  of  types  of 
exercises  in  any  given  group  or  line  of  progression. 

In  general,  it  is  wise  to  have  successive  lessons  as  different  as 
possible  even  though  some  types  of  exercises  may  have  to  be 
"carried  over"  without  much  or  any  modification.  In  many 
groups  of  exercises,  however,  there  are  a  sufficient  number  of 
types  to  make  possible  the  recurrence  of  a  given  type  or  com- 
bination, with  or  without  modification,  only  at  intervals  of 
several  lessons. 

The  more  frequent  the  periods  of  instruction  and  the  greater 
the  total  length  of  the  course,  the  finer  and  more  gradual  can 
the  progression  be  made.  There  may  then  be  correspondingly 
less  repetition  of  whole  lessons  or  of  individual  exercises,  unless 
other  conditions  are  such  as  to  require  numerous  repetitions. 
When  the  frequency  and  total  amount  of  instruction  are  limited 
the  steps  are  longer  and  repetitions  as  a  rule  more  numerous.  In 
any  case,  it  will  generally  be  advisable  to  repeat  each  lesson  in 
toto  at  least  twice.  This  much  will  perhaps  be  necessary  in  order 
to  have  the  class  notice  the  change  and  become  aware  of  the 
progression.  It  is  also  of  advantage  to  review  all  but  the  very 
simplest  types  and  combinations  from  time  to  time,  either  by 
way  of  "clinching"  them,  or  to  fill  in  and  round  out  a  well-bal- 
anced lesson.  The  occasional  use  of  relatively  easy,  familiar 
exercises  is  often  necessary  in  advanced  stages  of  progression 
in  order  to  relieve  the  class  from  too  great  strain — muscular  and 
nervous — which  would  be  involved  in  doing  several  severe  and 
difficult  exercises  in  succession. 

Principles  of  Progression  of  Free-Standing  Exercises. 

General  considerations.  Before  taking  up  the  detailed  discus- 
sion of  principles  of  progression  of  free-standing  exercises  and 
their  application  in  the  various  classes  of  movements,  it  will 
perhaps  be  helpful  at  this  point  to  summarize  and  to  some  extent 
to  restate  certain  general  principles  and  conceptions  closely  re- 
lated to  and  in  many  respects  serving  as  a  basis  for  such  pro- 
gression. Most  of  them  have  been  referred  to  repeatedly  and 
were  among  the  factors  enumerated  in  the  preceding  section  as 
elements  in  the  progression  of  gymnastic  lessons. 

Types  and  their  relative  difficulty.  Within  the  respective 
groups  or  classes  of  exercises  there  may  be  many  types  which 
represent  little  or  no  difference  in  the  matter  of  difficulty  or 
severity,  while  between  others  there  may  be  considerable  differ- 


132  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

ence  in  these  respects.  In  the  former  case,  the  order  in  which  they 
are  used  is  immaterial,  while  in  the  latter  case,  the  progression 
should,  of  course,  be  from  the  easier  to  the  more  difficult.  A 
correct  estimate  of  such  relative  differences  will  be  greatly  helped 
by  an  understanding  of  the  anatomical  mechanism  of  the  move- 
ments ;  but  in  any  case,  the  teacher's  judgment  in  this  matter  will 
need  to  be  backed  up  by  a  practical  knowledge  of  the  work  and  be 
guided  largely  by  his  teaching  experience.  Often  an  exercise 
which  appears  simple  and  easy  enough,  theoretically,  or  to  a  well- 
trained  individual,  is  found  in  practice  to  offer  considerable  diffi- 
culty to  the  majority  of  pupils,  if  given  too  early  in  the  progres- 
sion. Such  is  the  case,  for  example,  with  (slow)  deep  knee 
bending  with  the  trunk  carried  vertical  and  erect,  or  with  a  type 
of  downward  bending  of  trunk  in  which  the  "going"  movement 
is  combined  with  double  foot  placing  and  preceded  by  a  simple 
arm  movement,  while  the  return  (the  trunk  raising)  is  combined 
with  the  arm  movement  and  followed  by  the  foot  placing. 

As  far  as  possible  the  different  types  should  be  taken  up  in  such 
an  order  that  the  easier  pave  the  way  for  and  lead  up  to  the  more 
difficult  types  and  combinations.  Often  in  a  long  series  of  les- 
sons the  most  interesting  and  representative  types,  whether 
actually  or  only  relatively  difficult,  may  thus  have  to  be  held 
back  until  toward  the  end  of  the  series,  even  though  they  might 
be  done  acceptably  at  an  earlier  period.  But  it  would  not  be 
logical  nor  wise,  either  from  the  standpoint  of  insuring  good 
execution  or  sustaining  interest,  to  use  such  types  first,  and 
simpler,  less  interesting  types  afterward. 

When  there  are  "gaps"  in  any  line  of  progression  owing  to  a 
scarcity  of  types  suitable  for  preparatory  steps  leading  up  to 
more  difficult  and  representative  exercises,  or  when  the  fre- 
quency and  total  number  of  lessons  do  not  warrant  a  finely 
graded  progression,  recourse  must  be  had  to  repetition.  In  this 
way  the  most  desirable  types,  even  if  somewhat  advanced  for 
the  class,  can  be  presented,  and  at  least  a  fair  degree  of  correct 
execution  obtained. 

Complexity.  This  term  has  often  been  used  in  the  foregoing 
pages  to  signify  that  a  movement  is  made  up  of  several  ele- 
ments, in  contradistinction  to  a  simple  movement,  consisting  of 
only  one  elementary  movement  and  the  return  to  the  starting 
position.  The  degree  of  complexity  is  determined  by  the  num- 
ber of  elements  of  which  the  movement  is  composed.  Several 
kinds  of  complexity  may  be  distinguished. 

1.  A  complex  movement  may  consist  of  two  or  more  ele- 
mentary movements  of  one  part  or  region  of  the  body  (head, 
trunk  or  extremities),  executed  either  simultaneously  or  consecu- 
tively. (1)  When  done  simultaneously  the  term  composite  move- 
ment might  perhaps  be  used.  Simultaneous  twisting  and  bending 


PROGRESSION  133 

of  the  trunk  would  be  an  example  of  such  a  composite  move- 
ment. (2)  When  the  different  elements  are  executed  consecu- 
tively in  such  a  way  that  the  second  movement  and  its  return  are 
interposed  between  the  two  phases  of  the  first,  the  whole  move- 
ment might  be  called  compound  if  the  elements  are  distinct  from 
each  other — each  completed  before  the  next  begins.  When  they 
"overlap,"  i.e.,  are  partly  simultaneous,  partly  consecutive,  and 
flow  into  each  other  smoothly,  the  whole  might  be  described  as 
a  blended,  compound  movement.  Twisting  followed  by  side 
bending  of  trunk,  and  heel  raising  followed  by  knee  bending 
may  serve  as  examples.  The  return  movements  are  always  in 
reverse  order. 

2.  Again,  a  complex  movement  may  consist  of  one  or  more 
elementary  movements  of  two  or  more  parts  or  regions  of  the 
body,  either  done  simultaneously  or  consecutively.  (1)  When 
done  simultaneously  the  whole  exercise  might  be  called  a  com- 
bined movement,  as,  for  example,  "arm  bending  with  heel  rais- 
ing." (2)  When  done  consecutively,  and  one  element  (including 
the  return  movement)  is  interposed  between  the  two  phases  of 
the  other  element,  the  term  compound  movement  would  again 
be  suitable.  Alternate  foot  placing  sideways  (with  hands  on 
neck)  followed  by  trunk  twisting  is  an  example  of  such  a  com- 
pound movement.  (3)  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  different  ele- 
ments, with  their  respective  return  movements,  are  executed 
alternately,  the  whole  cycle  might  be  designated  by  the  term  alter- 
nating movement.  Bend  stride  standing  forward  bending  of 
trunk,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upward  is  a  typical  exam- 
ple. In  both  the  compound  and  alternating  movements  the  com- 
ponent parts  may  be  combined  movements.  The  whole  cycle 
would  then  be  a  combined  compound  or  alternating  movement. 

Most  natural  movements,  performed  in  the  ordinary7  activities 
of  daily  life,  are  of  the  composite,  blended,  flowing,  more  or  less 
complex  type.  So  are  many  gymnastic  exercises  of  the  kind 
which  has  been  termed  "indefinite."  Definite  gymnastic  move- 
ments, on  the  other  hand,  are  either  simple  or  composite,  or 
else  they  are  combined,  compound  or  alternating.  All  the  ele- 
ments are  distinct  and  separated  by  clearly  defined  positions. 

It  will  readily  be  seen,  then,  that  from  a  gymnastic  stand- 
point progression  in  regard  to  complexity  should  always  take 
into  account  the  relative  degree  of  definiteness  of  the  exercises. 
It  will  represent  progression,  for  example,  when  a  complex  exer- 
cise of  the  composite,  blended  and  compound,  so-called  indefinite 
type — such  as  an  oblique  charge  or  lunge,  combined  with  an  arm 
movement  and  a  trunk  twisting  and  followed  by  a  forward 
bending  of  trunk — is  redefined  so  as  to  make  possible  resolving 
it,  as  nearly  as  may  be,  into  its  component  elements.  It  may 
then  be  practiced  piecemeal,  as  it  were,  in  the  form  of  various 


134  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

definite  combined,  compound  or  alternating  movements,  and 
finally  reconstructed  into  an  exercise  as  complex  as  the  original, 
but  more  definite.  The  preparatory  practice  of  each  part  sepa- 
rately might,  in  a  sense,  be  considered  retrogression,  being  a 
decrease  in  complexity;  but  in  reality  it  is  only  a  step  in  the 
progression  toward  greater  definiteness  with  all  that  this  means 
in  the  way  of  better  localization,  inhibition,  fixation  and  finer 
muscular  control.  The  reconstruction  or  reassembling  of  the 
elements  into  exercises  more  or  less  similar  to  the  original  type 
would  imply  a  real  increase  in  complexity  of  the  definite  kind. 
Theoretically,  progression  would  mean  in  the  end  a  return  toward 
the  blended,  smoothly  flowing  type  of  movement,  with  greater 
accuracy,  grace  and  power  of  execution  than  previously. 

A  similar  line  of  progression  is  followed  when  the  point  of 
departure  is  different,  when  the  exercises  from  the  outset  are 
of  a  relatively  simple,  definite  character.  Thus,  a  simple  or 
composite  gymnastic  movement  involving  one  part  of  the  body 
is  first  combined  with  a  similar  movement  of  another  part,  e.g., 
arm  bending  with  side  lunge;  or  it  is  followed  by  an  equally 
simple  movement  of  the  same  part,  making  a  compound  move- 
ment, e.g.,  arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways  and  upward, 
or  side  lunge  and  alternate  knee  bending.  Then  it  may  be  put 
together  with  a  movement  of  another  part,  e.g.,  hip  grasp  stand- 
ing side  lunge  followed  by  arm  flinging  sideways,  or  by  side 
bending  of  trunk.  Next,  one  combined  movement  might  be 
followed  by  a  simple  movement — as  arm  bending  with  side 
lunge,  then  side  bending  of  trunk;  or  these  might  be  alternated, 
thus:  arm  bending  with  side  lunge,  side  bending  and  raising  of 
trunk,  arm  stretching  sideways  and  arm  bending,  return  to 
fundamental  position.  Finally  a  combined  compound  movement 
may  be  made  of  these  elements,  as,  for  example,  arm  bending 
with  side  lunge  followed  by  arm  stretching  sideways  with  side 
bending  of  trunk.  Complexity  might  be  still  further  increased  by 
adding  other  elements,  such  as  trunk  twisting  or  arm  movements 
of  different  kinds,  or  alternate  knee  bending,  and  combining  or 
alternating  them  in  any  way  compatible  with  definiteness.  Thus 
an  elaborate  series  or  cycle  of  movements  may  be  constructed. 
In  advanced  stages  of  this  kind  of  progression,  as  in  the  other, 
there  would  ultimately  be  an  approach  to  the  more  composite, 
blended,  complex  type  of  exercises,  but  with  retention  of  all  the 
vigor,  precision,  completeness  and  speed  which  characterize  the 
definite  type  of  gymnastic  movements.  However,  in  ordinary 
class  teaching  this  point  is  seldom  reached.  When  it  is,  the  work 
is  really  in  the  nature  of  dancing.  Indeed,  there  is  no  sharp 
line  of  demarcation  between  such  complex,  rhythmic  gymnastics 
and  dancing. 


PROGRESSION  135 

Combination  and  alternation.  Progression  of  definite  gymnas- 
tic exercises  as  regards  complexity — which,  coupled  with  the 
inherent  nature  of  the  different  types,  is  the  measure  of  diffi- 
culty— is  then  a  matter  of  combination  and  alternation  of  simple, 
well-defined  elementary  movements.  The  execution  of  these 
elementary  movements  from  the  various  derived  starting  posi- 
tions is  a  closely  related  factor,  and  may,  indeed,  be  considered 
one  phase  of  combination.  The  judicious  choice  of  starting  posi- 
tions and  the  proper  matching  of  elements  or  types  in  combined, 
compound  and  alternating  movements  are  not  only  essential  in 
rational,  consistent  progression,  but  facilitate  rhythmic  execution 
of  definite  exercises,  thus  making  for  greater  variety,  quantity 
and  continuity  of  the  work.  These  are  factors  of  prime  impor- 
tance in  the  planning  and  arrangement  of  well-balanced,  all- 
round  lessons,  in  the  choice  of  method  or  procedure  in  teaching, 
in  making  the  work  effective  and  interesting. 

While  combination  of  all  kinds  of  movements  is  theoretically 
possible,  in  practice  only  certain  combinations  are  suitable.  Only 
such  elements  should  be  chosen  and  put  together  as  will  harmon- 
ize and  will  represent,  in  their  combination,  a  real  increase  in 
effectiveness.  The  main  considerations  here  are  the  number, 
general  character  and  speed  of  the  elements  to  be  combined. 

The  number  will  vary  with  the  stage  in  the  progression,  and 
that  in  turn  will  depend  on  the  ability  of  the  class.  Except  in 
the  most  advanced  work,  where  very  complex  combinations — 
such  as  charges  and  lunges  combined  with  dissimilar  arm,  head 
and  trunk  movements — can  be  used,  the  number  of  elements 
rarely  exceeds  three — involving  the  arms,  the  legs  and  the  trunk 
respectively.  In  the  great  majority  of  useful  combinations 
there  are  only  two  elements. 

As  regards  the  general  character  of  the  elements  to  be  com- 
bined, they  should  all  be  simple,  definite  movements,  capable  of 
being  executed  simultaneously  in  an  equally  definite,  clear-cut 
manner.  Combination  of  composite,  vague,  or  ill-defined  move- 
ments, or  of  one  such,  with  a  simple,  definite  movement,  would 
make  for  indefiniteness  in  the  execution  of  the  combination,  with 
corresponding  loss  of  effectiveness. 

Finally,  only  such  elements  should  be  combined  as  can  be  done 
with  full  effectiveness  at  similar  speed.  For  if  two  movements 
whose  "natural"  speed  is  different  are  executed  simultaneously — 
as,  for  example,  an  arm  movement  and  a  slow  trunk  bending — 
the  combination  will  necessarily  represent  a  compromise  in  re- 
spect to  speed  and  power.  That  will  detract  from  the  definiteness 
and  hence  from  the  effectiveness  of  both  elements.  Because  most 
trunk  movements  are  relatively  slow  and  require  careful,  dis- 
criminating muscular  action  to  be  properly  localized,  they  are 
not  well  suited  for  combination  with  any  other  kind  of  move- 


136  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

merits,  except  leg  movements  of  the  slow  type.  In  advanced 
stages  of  progression,  however,  relatively  quick  forward-down- 
ward bending  may  be  combined  with  arm  movements  and  wide 
foot  placing  sideways.  Trunk  twisting  may  also  be  done  quickly 
in  combination  with  arm  movements,  foot  placings  and  charges 
when  the  class  has  reached  a  sufficiently  advanced  stage  of 
training. 

Whenever  combination  of  two  movements  is  unsuitable,  such 
movements  can  nearly  always  be  alternated  or  put  together  into 
compound  movements.  Here  there  is  practically  no  limitation, 
except  that  alternating  and  compound  movements  which  do  not 
represent  any  particular  value,  or  which  would  make  successive 
exercises  in  a  lesson  too  much  alike,  should  be  avoided.  The 
number  of  parts  may  be  anywhere  from  two  to  four.  Counting 
the  return  phase  of  each,  this  will  mean  double  that  number  of 
movements  (on  each  side,  if  unilateral)  to  complete  the  cycle. 
Here,  as  in  combination,  movements  consisting  of  only  two 
parts  (four  count  cycles)  make  up  the  great  majority  of  useful 
exercises.  Any  one  or  all  of  the  parts  may  be  combined  move- 
ments. Thus  the  number  of  elements — the  complexity — may  be 
made  as  great  or  as  small  as  the  teacher  desires  and  the  ability 
of  the  class  justifies. 

Speed.  As  has  already  been  stated,  most  movements  are  done 
in  the  most  effective  manner  at  a  certain  speed — their  "natural" 
speed.  Thus  trunk  bendings  are  best  done  slowly,  arm  bendings 
and  stretchings  quickly.  On  the  other  hand,  many  movements 
may  be  done  at  different  speeds  and  their  character  or  special 
effectiveness  made  to  vary  accordingly.  Thus,  for  example,  in 
slow  arm  bendings  and  stretchings,  there  is  more  resistance  on 
the  part  of  the  antagonistic  muscles.  This  makes  them  more 
effective  as  shoulder  blade  exercises.  Similarly,  heel  raising  and 
knee  bending,  when  done  slowly,  becomes  more  of  a  balance 
movement  than  otherwise,  and  the  muscular  work  is  more  fati- 
guing. Trunk  twisting,  after  some  practice,  may  be  done  equally 
effectively  slowly  or  quickly.  In  general,  progression  in  this 
respect  is  away  from  the  "natural"  speed  of  the  movements, 
providing  the  muscular  action  is  thus  made  more  powerful  and 
difficult.  Increased  speed  would  then  generally  mean  more 
sudden  and  vigorous  contraction  of  all  muscles  concerned,  and 
especially  of  motor  muscles ;  while  retardation  would  mean 
bringing  into  action  a  greater  number  of  antagonistic,  steadying 
and  fixator  muscles,  or  more  vigorous  contraction  of  those  which 
are  used  more  or  less  even  when  the  movement  is  done  with 
greater  speed. 

Rhythm.  Uniform,  moderately  fast  rhythm  is  easiest,  espe- 
cially when  associated  with  very  brief  pauses  between  the  move- 
ments— that  is,  when  positions  are  not  retained  an  appreciable 


PROGRESSION  137 

length  of  time.  The  speed  of  the  movements  and  the  effort  re- 
quired are  then  correspondingly  moderate ;  the  exercises  are  more 
or  less  indefinite.  When  for  any  reason  this  type  of  work  is 
desired,  progression  would  be  toward  faster  rhythm,  which  would 
then  be  equivalent  to  greater  speed  of  movement.  But  if  it  is 
desired  to  make  the  work  more  definite  in  character,  progression 
would  at  first  be  toward  slower  rhythm  by  making  the  pauses 
during  which  positions  are  held  longer.  Such  slowing  of  the 
rhythm  would  not  preclude,  but  rather  favor,  increasing  the 
speed  of  the  movements. 

In  rhythmic  work  of  the  definite  type,  progression  is  generally 
from  the  slower  toward  the  faster  rhythms,  partly  by  shortening 
the  pauses  somewhat,  but  even  more  by  increasing  the  speed  of 
the  movements.  Progression  is  also  from  even,  uniform  rhythm 
to  the  various  kinds  of  broken,  undulating  rhythms.  In  these 
it  is  also  generally  a  variation  of  the  speed  of  the  movements 
rather  than  of  the  length  of  the  pause,  although  the  latter  may 
occur  to  a  limited  extent.  Alternation  of  quick  and  slow  move- 
ments with  lengthening  of  the  pause  after  the  former  and  short- 
ening it  after  the  latter  gives  a  certain  accentuation  to  a  compound 
movement  which  simulates  broken  rhythm.  But  in  reality  such 
rhythm  is  often  very  nearly,  if  not  quite,  even. 

Derived  starting  positions.  Most  simple  and  combined  move- 
ments may  be  made  progressively  more  difficult  or  powerful  by 
being  started  from  positions  in  which  the  arms,  the  legs  or  the 
trunk — one  or  all — are  in  a  different  relation  to  each  other  from 
that  obtaining  in  the  fundamental  position.  The  use  of  these 
derived  starting  positions  adds  to  the  total  quantity,  the  com- 
plexity and  difficulty  of  the  muscular  work  of  the  exercise,  not 
only  by  the  efforts  necessary  to  sustain  them,  but  by  the  possi- 
bilities they  offer  in  the  way  of  increasing  the  weight  leverage, 
of  varying  the  base,  and  thus  of  modifying  conditions  of  equi- 
librium and  weight  distribution.  The  changed  relation  of  the 
parts  also  means  different  conditions  of  fixation  for  muscular 
work,  compels  dissociation  of  familiar  or  habitual  group  action 
of  muscles  and  induces  new,  more  varied  and  difficult  associa- 
tions. The  starting  position  may  make  more  difficult  or  facili- 
tate localization  of  movement  and  even  of  muscular  contraction, 
may  increase  or  diminish  range  of  movement,  and  thus  be  a 
determining  factor  in  the  general  or  specific  effectiveness  of  the 
exercise. 

The  movement  by  which  any  given  (named)  starting  position 
is  reached  should  not  be  considered  a  part  of  the  named  move- 
ment which  begins  from  and  returns  to  this  starting  position 
repeatedly.  The  former  occurs  only  once  and  is  taken  in 
response  to  a  descriptive  command  in  which  the  imperative  verb 
serves  as  the  final  command.  The  return  to  the  fundamental 


138  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

position  occurs  only  after  the  real  movement  has  been  repeated 
the  desired  number  of  times.  When  the  movements  by  which 
derived  starting  positions  are  reached  are  practiced  repeatedly, 
either  as  simple  or  combined  movements,  or  as  parts  of  compound 
movements,  they  are  named  as  movements  and  not  as  positions. 
For  the  convenience  of  readers  who  are  not  familiar  with  the 
terminology  used  in  the  following  pages,  a  list  of  the  various 
derived  positions  and  the  movements  by  which  they  are  reached, 
with  brief  explanations,  follows.* 

Starting  positions  derived  from  the  fundamental  position. 

1.     By  change  in  the  position  of  the  arms. 

Hip  grasp   (or  wing)   standing  position — hands  placed  on  hips. 

Movement :  Placing  hands  on  hips. 

Bend  standing  position — elbows  completely  flexed  and  close  to  the  waist, 
fingers  flexed  as  much  as  possible  and  close  to  the  outer  part  of  the 
shoulders. 

Movement :  arm  bending. 

Neck  grasp  (or  rest)  standing  position — hands  placed  behind  neck  (or 
head). 

Movement:  Placing  hands  on  neck  (or  head). 

Cross  (a)  standing  position — arms  raised  sideways,  elbows  flexed  and 
well  back,  hands  and  elbows  at  shoulder  level,  palms  down. 

Movement :  Forward  bending  of  arms. 

Cross  (b) — as  cross  (a),  but  with  elbows  flexed  only  90°,  palms  facing 
each  other. 

Movement :  J4  forward  bending  of  arms. 

Cross  (c) — arms  raised  sideways  to  shoulder  level,  elbows  extended,  palms 
down. 

Movements:  Arm  raising  or  flinging,  or  stretching   (from  bend 
st.  pos.)    sideways,   or  arm  parting    (flinging  sideways)    from 
reach  st.  pos. 

Cross  (d) — as  cross  (c),  but  with  palms  up. 

Movements :   Arm  raising,  flinging  or  stretching  sideways,  with 

palms  up. 
Cross  (e) — as  cross  (d),.but  with  elbows  flexed  90°. 

Movement :  %  sideways  bending  of  arms. 

Reach  st.  pos. — arms  raised  horizontally  forward,  shoulder  distance  apart, 
palms  facing  each  other. 

Movements :  Arm  raising,  flinging  or  stretching  forward. 
Diagonal   or   oblique   stretch   st.   position — arms   raised   sideways-upward 
to  a  position  of  45°  from  the  vertical,  palms  up. 

Movements :  Arm  flinging  or  stretching  diagonally   (sideways-) 

upwards. 

Stretch  st.  pos. — arms  vertically  overhead,  elbows  straight,  palms  facing 
each  other. 

Movements  :  Arm  raising  or  flinging  sideways-upward  or  forward- 
upward;  arm  stretching  upward';  placing  hands  overhead. 


*With  a  few  exceptions,  the  terms  are  those  used  by  C.  J   Enebuske  in  his  "Pro- 
gressive Gymnastic  Day's  Orders,"  and  translated  by  him  from  the  Swedish. 


PROGRESSION  139 

2.     By  change  in  the  position  of  the  legs. 

Stride  standing  position — feet  placed  directly  sideways,  two  foot-lengths 
apart,  body  weight  equally  on  both  feet. 

Movement :  Foot  placing  sideways,  alternate  foot  placing  sideways. 
Walk  (a)  st.  pos. — one  foot  placed  obliquely  forward-outward  two  foot- 
lengths.    Weight  equally  on  both  feet. 

Movement :  Alternate  foot  placing  obliquely  outward. 
Walk  (b)   st.  pos. — one  foot  placed  directly  forward,  weight  equally  on 
both  feet. 

Movement :  Alternate  foot  placing  forward. 
Walk  (c)  st.  pos. — as  walk  (b),  but  with  toes  pointing  straight  ahead. 

Movement:  Alternate   foot  placing  forward   (from  the  close  st. 

pos.). 
Close  st.  pos. — heels  and  toes  together. 

Movement:  Closing  of  feet.  • 

Toe  st.  pos. — heels  raised. 

Movement :   Heel   raising. 

Knee-bend  st.  pos. — trunk  erect,  heels  on  floor,  knees  bent  and  well  apart. 
Movement:  Knee  bending. 

Toe-knee-bend  st.  pos. — as  preceding,  but  with  heels  raised,  knees  flexed 

90°. 

Movement:  Knee  bending  with  heel  raising  (combined),  or  heel 
raising  and  knee  bending  (compound). 

Toe-deep-knee-bend  st.  pos. — as  preceding,  but  knees  flexed  as  much  as 
possible. 

Movement:  Deep  knee  bending  (with  simultaneous  heel  raising), 
or  heel  raising  and  deep  knee  bending. 

Side  lunge  position — foot  placed  directly  sideways  about  three  foot-lengths, 
knee  well  out  and  flexed  upwards  of  90°,  trunk  erect  (vertical). 

Movement:  Side  lunge. 

Oblique  charge  position  or  charge  (a) — foot  placed  obliquely  forward- 
outward  three  foot-lengths,  knee  flexed  about  90°,  trunk  in  line  with 
the  straight  rear  leg,  sole  of  rear  foot  firmly  pressing  on  the  floor, 
shoulders  inclined,  but  facing  forward. 

Movement :  Oblique  charge. 

Forward  charge  position  or  charge  (b) — three  foot-lengths  straight  ahead, 
toe  of  advanced  foot  pointing  forward,  rear  foot  firm  on  the  floor, 
at  right  angles  to  advanced  foot,  trunk  in  line  with  rear  leg,  shoulders 
level  and  square  to  the  front. 
Movement:  Forward  charge. 

Toe-support  charge  position — like  preceding,  but  with  only  the  toe  of  rear 
foot  touching  the  floor. 

Movement:  No  name. 

J/2  standing  position — on  one  foot,  with  the  free  leg  raised  forward  or 
sideways. 

Movement:  Leg  raising  forward  or  sideways. 
Kneeling  position — knees  flexed  90°,  ankles  extended. 
Movement:  Kneeling. 

l/2  kneeling  position — on  one  knee,  the  other  foot  placed  directly  forward 
far  enough  to  flex  the  knee  90°. 

Movement :  Kneeling  on  one  knee. 


140  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Stooping    position — knees    bent    as    much    as    possible,    heels    off,    trunk 
inclined  forward,  back  straight,  hands  touching  floor. 
Movement :  Stooping. 

l/t  hook  standing  position — one  knee  raised  forward,  about  90°  flexion  at 
hip  and  knee. 

Movement :  Knee  upward  bending. 

3.     By  change  in  the  position  of  the  trunk. 

Arch    standing   position — chest    forcibly    expanded,    head    moved    as    far 
backward  as  possible  without  tilting  (chin  in). 

Movement:  Backward  arching  or  bending  of  trunk. 

Prone   standing  position — trunk   inclined    forward  about  45°    from   hips, 
back  straight. 

Movement:  Forward  bending  of  trunk.     (Movement  beyond  45° 
would  be  called  forward-downward  bending  of  trunk.) 

Twist  standing  position — trunk   turned   about  45°   to   one   side,   without 
moving  hips.     Head  is  not  moved  independently. 
Movement :  Trunk  twisting. 

Prone  falling  position    (front  leaning  rest) — body  straight,   face   down- 
ward, supported  on  hands  and  toes. 

Movement :  No  name. 

Side  falling  position  (side  leaning  rest) — body  straight,  supported  on  hand 
and  foot  of  one  side. 

Movement :  No  name. 

Derived  starting  positions  in  which  more  than  one  part  of  the 
body  varies  from  the  fundamental  position  are  named  by  put- 
ting the  respective  designations  together,  with  or  without  hyphen, 
e.g.,  bend  stride  standing  position;  cross  (a)  toe  st.  position; 
stretch  toe-knee  bend  st.  position;  neck  grasp  walk  (a)  st. 
position;  cross  (d)  close  twist  st.  position;  cross  (e)  stride 
prone  st.  position ;  hip  grasp  oblique  charge  position.  When  , 
a  movement  is  to  be  done  from  a  derived  starting  position  the 
logical  way  would  be  to  put  a  colon  after  the  word  "position," 
thus :  Bend  standing  position :  arm  stretching  sideways.  But 
this  may  be  contracted  by  omitting  the  word  "position"  and  the 
colon.  The  example  given  would  then  be:  Bend  standing  arm 
stretching  sideways. 

When  naming  combined  movements  the  word  "with"  con- 
nects the  two  terms,  e.g.,  arm  bending  with  heel  raising;  cross 
(a)  stride  standing  arm  flinging  sideways  with  knee  bending.  In 
compound  movements  the  word  "and"  is  used,  preceded  by  a 
comma,  e.g.,  hip  grasp  standing  alternate  foot  placing  sideways, 
and  knee  bending. 

In  combined  compound  movements  the  words  "and"  and 
"with"  may  be  used  in  two  ways,  as  shown  in  the  following  exam- 
ple :  Arm  bending  and  stretching  upward  with  alternate  foot  plac- 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES          141 

ing  forward  and  heel  raising ;  or,  arm  bending  with  alternate  foot 
placing  forward,  and  arm  stretching  upward  with  heel  raising. 
If  it  is  desired  to  be  very  explicit,  the  phrase  "followed  by"  or 
the  word  "then"  may  be  substituted  for  the  word  "and." 

6.     APPLICATION  OF  PRINCIPLES  OF  PROGRESSION  IN  THE 
VARIOUS  CLASSES  AND  TYPES  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES. 

The  general  principles  discussed  in  the  preceding  chapter  are 
more  or  less  applicable  to  all  classes  and  types  of  movements. 
The  extent  and  mode  of  their  application  will  vary  somewhat 
with  the  particular  groups  or  types  of  exercises  and  will  be  deter- 
mined by  various  factors,  such  as  the  character  and  purpose  of 
any  given  movement,  the  emphasis  placed  on  any  one  phase  of 
the  work,  the  suitability  or  practicability  of  any  possible  modifi- 
cation of  an  exercise,  etc. 

The  manner  of  application  of  some  of  the  main  principles 
which  are  involved  in  determining  or  changing  the  character  and 
mode  of  execution  of  an  exercise — from  the  less  to  the  more 
definite  style,  from  doing  each  movement  on  command  to  rhyth- 
mic repetition  and  vice  versa,  variations  of  speed  and  rhythm — 
has  already  been  indicated  and  will  not  be  discussed  further.  It 
is  largely  a  matter  of  technique  of  teaching  on  one  hand,  and  of 
the  teacher's  ideals,  standards  of  quality  and  judgment  of  con- 
ditions on  the  other.  A  thorough  understanding  and  working 
knowledge  of  such  application  can  really  only  be  gained  through 
experience.  The  present  chapter  will  be  devoted  mainly  to  the 
illustration  of  the  use  of  derived  starting  positions,  of  combina- 
tion and  alternation  of  movements  for  the  purpose  of  progres- 
sively increasing  the  complexity,  difficulty  or  severity  of  the 
principal  types  which  make  up  the  different  classes  of  exercises. 

Leg  {and  Arm)  Movements. 

The  principles  used  in  the  progression  of  this  class  of  exercises 
are: 

1.  Variation  of  base  by  changing  the  starting  position  of  the 
legs.    The  increase  in  difficulty  of  keeping  the  balance,  which  is 
one  of  the  features  resulting  from  such  variation  of  starting 
positions,  should  not  at  any  time  be  carried"  so  far  as  to  interfere 
with   brisk  and  vigorous   execution.     Types   and   combinations 
which  represent  considerable  difficulty  in  this  respect  should  first 
be  practiced  as  balance  exercises. 

2.  Executing  leg  movements  while  holding  the  arms  in  in- 
creasingly difficult  starting  positions — chiefly  hip  grasp  (wing), 
bend,  and  neck  grasp  (rest)  positions. 


142 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


3.  Combining  leg  movements  with  arm  movements. 

4.  Holding  difficult  or  tiring  leg  positions  while  doing  arm  or 
head  movements.     Exercises  of  this  type  should  be  used  only 
sparingly,  if  at  all,  as  leg  movements.    They  are  more  suitable  for 
balance  exercises.     This  line  of  progression  will  be  illustrated 
under  balance  exercises. 

5.  Making  compound  movements  by  having  one  leg  movement 
follow  another — as  heel  raising  and  knee  bending;  alternate  foot 
placing  and  heel  raising,  or  knee  bending,  or  both. 

6.  Making  combined  compound  movements  with  both  arms 
and  legs,  thus  increasing  the  number  of  elements. 

7.  Increasing  the  range  of  movement  (in  deep  knee  bending). 


Types. 

Alternate   foot  placings — sideways,   forward,   obliquely   forward-outward, 

backward,  obliquely  backward-outward. 
Alternate  toe  touching   forward  or   sideways  with  bending  of  knee   of 

stationary  leg. 
Alternate  toe  raising. 

Heel  raising;  alternate  heel  raising.     Alternate  heel-and-toe  raising. 
Knee  bending;  deep  knee  bending;  alternate  knee  bending. 
Side  lunge. 
Stooping. 


Progression. 

Alternate  foot  placings: 

Hip  grasp  standing 
Bend  standing 
Neck  grasp  standing 


Alternate  foot  placings 
in  the  different  direc- 
tions 


alternate 
foot  placing 


combined 
with 


sideways,  forward, 
forward-outward, 
backward, 
backward-outward. 

placing  of  hands  on  hips;  on 
neck;  arm  bending;  forward 
bending  of  arms;  arm  flinging 
sideways,  forward,  sideways- 
upward,  forward-upward; 
placing  hands  on  neck;  arm 
circumduction  ^forward-up- 
ward, sideways-downward); 
%.  sideways  bending  of  arms. 


Alternate  toe  touching  with  bending  of  opposite  knee: 
Progression  similar  to  that  of  alternate  foot  placing. 


Heel  raising: 

Hip  grasp 
Bend 
Neck  grasp 


stride  standing 

standing 

walk  (a)  standing 

close  standing 

walk  (b)  and  (.c)  standing 


heel  raiSing. 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES 


143 


Heel  raising  with  arm  movements : 

Placing  hands  on  hips 

Arm  bending 

Forward  bending  of  arms 

Arm  raising  or  flinging  sideways 

Arm  raising  or  flinging  forward 

Placing  hands  on  neck 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  downward 

Cross  (a)  st.  arm  flinging  sideways  with  heel 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sideways  f      raising. 

Reach  st.  arm  flinging  sideways 

Cross  (c)  st.  arm  rotation 

Cross  (b)  st.  arm  rotation 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upward 

Cross  (d)  st.  arm  raising,  or  flinging  upward 

Reach  st.  arm  raising  or  flinging  upward 

Cross  (e)  st.  arm  stretching  upward  J 


Simple  arm  movements  with  alternate  foot  placings,  and  heel  raising : 


Placing  hands  on  hips 
Arm  bending 
Forward  bending  of  arms 
Placing  hands  on  neck,  etc. 


with  alternate  foot  plac- 
ing sideways,  forward, 
obliquely  outward,  etc., 


and  heel 
raising. 


Compound    (2  count)    arm  movements  with  alternate  foot  placings  and 
heel  raising: 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways 

Forward  bending  and  side  flinging  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  forward  and  sideways 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  forward 

Arm  flinging  sideways  and  arm  rotation 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  upward  with  alter- 

Arm  flinging  sideways  and  upward  nate  foot 

Arm  circumduction  (4  counts:  forward  and          placings 

upward,  sideways  and  downward) 
Yz    sideways    bending  of    arms   and  arm 

stretching  sideways,  or  upward 
Arm    flinging    forward-upward   and    arm 

parting 


and  heel 
raising. 


Closing  and  opening  of  feet  may  be  substituted  for  alternate  foot  placings 
in  most  of  the  above  combined  and  compound  movements. 

Alternate  heel  raising  may  be  done  as  a  1  or  2  count  movement  (on 
each  side)  from  the  stride  standing  position  with  the  arms  in  hip 
grasp  or  neck  grasp  positions. 

Alternate  toe  raising — from  the  hip  or  neck  grasp  st.  pos. 

Alternate  heel-and-toe  raising — from  the  hip  or  neck  grasp  standing,  the 
bend  or  cross  (c)  standing  positions. 

Knee  bendings : 


Hip  grasp 
Neck  grasp 


standing 
stride  standing 


knee  bending. 


144 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


Knee  bendings  with  arm  movements : 

Arm  raising  or  flinging  sideways 

Arm  bending 

Stride  standing  Forward  bending  of  arms  with  knee 

Toe  standing  %  sideways  bending  of  arms  [      bending. 

Arm  flinging  sideways-upward 

Arm  circumduction,  2  counts 

Bend  stride  st.  arm  stretching  sideways 

Cross  (a)  stride  st.  arm  flinging  sideways 

Reach  stride  st.  arm  parting  (or  flinging)  sideways 

Bend  stride  st.  arm  stretching  forward 

Bend  stride  st.  arm  stretching  upward  with  knee 

Cross  (d)  stride  st.  arm  raising  bending. 

Reach  stride  st.  arm  raising  or  flinging  upward 

Cross  (e)  stride  st.  arm  stretching  sideways  or  upward 

Cross  (c)  stride  st.  arm  rotation 

Cross  (b)  stride  st.  arm  rotation 

Similar  combination  of  arm  movements  with  knee  bending  and 
deep  knee  bending  from  the  toe  standing  position;  also  knee 
bending  with  simultaneous  heel  raising,  starting  from  the  funda- 
mental standing  position. 


Hip  grasp ' 
Neck  grasp 


Standing 


standing 


knee  bending  with  simultaneous 
heel  raising  (designated  more 
briefly  by  "heels  off"). 


Arm  raising  (or  flinging)  sideways 

Arm  bending 

Forward  bending  of  arms 

YZ  sideways  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  sideways-upward 

Arm  circumduction,  2  counts 


with  knee 
bending, 
heels  off. 


Close    standing    arm    flinging    forward    with    knee    bending    (knees 
together),  heels  off. 


Hip  grasp 
Bend 
Neck  grasp 

Hip  grasp        1 
Neck  grasp     J 


stride  standing 
standing 
walk  (a)  st. 
walk  (b)  st. 


heel  raising  and 
knee  bending. 


standing  heel  raising  and  deep  knee  bending. 


Simple  arm  movements  with  alternate  foot  placings,  and  knee  bending: 


Placing  hands  on  hips 

Arm  bending 

Forward  bending  of  arms 

Placing  hands  on  neck 

Arm  flinging  sideways 

l/i  sideways  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  forward 

Arm  flinging  sideways-upward 

Arm  flinging  forward-upward 

Arm  circumduction,  2  counts 


with  alternate 

foot  placing 

sideways,  forward 

obliquely  forw.-outw. 

backward 

obliquely  backw.-outw. 


and  knee 
bending 
(without  or 
with  simul- 
t  an  e  ou  s 
heelrais'g). 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES 


145 


The  above  arm  movements  may  also  be  done  with  heel  raising 
(as  a  separate  movement),  followed  by  knee  bending.  The  heel 
raising  here  takes  the  place  of  the  foot  placing.  Example :  Plac- 
ing hands  on  neck  with  heel  raising,  and  knee  bending. 

Compound  (2  count)  arm  movement  with  alternate  foot  placings,  or  heel 
raising,  followed  by  knee  bending : 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways, 
forward  or  upward 

Forward  bending  and  side-flinging  of 
arms 

Arm  flinging  sideways  and  arm  rotation 

Arm  flinging  forward  and  sideways  (arm 
parting) 

%  sideways  bending  of  arms  and  arm 
stretching  sideways  or  upward 

Arm  flinging  sideways  and  upward 
(separate  movements)  . 

Arm  circumduction  (4  movements) 

Arm  flinging  forward-upward  or  side- 
ways-upward and  arm  parting 


with  heel  raising 
or  with  alternate 
foot  placings  in 
the  different  di- 
rections 


and  knee 
bending. 


Hip  grasp  standing 
Neck  grasp  standing 


alternate  foot  placings,  heel 
raising  and  knee  bending. 


The  last  are  6  count  compound  movements  on  each  side,  the 
heel  raising  being  a  separate  movement.  The  arms  remain  in  the 
derived  positions  throughout  the  repetitions. 


Arm  bending  and  stretching  side- 
ways, forward  or  upward 

Forward  bending  and  side-flinging 
of  arms 

And  all  the  other  2  count  (com- 
pound) arm  movements  (see 
above) 


with  alternate  [  heel  raising  and 
foot  placings,   )  knee  bending. 


These  are  also  6  count  cycles  (on  each  side),  the  heel  raising 
being  a  separate  movement.  The  arms  are  held  during  the  knee 
bending  in  the  position  reached  on  the  second  count  (which 
accompanies  the  heel  raising). 

Finally,  combined  6  count  movements  may  be  composed  of 
three  arm  and  three  leg  elements,  as,  for  example : 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  forward,  or  upward,  then  arm  parting, 
combined  with  alternate  foot  placings,  heel  raising  and  knee  bend- 
ing; or 


Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways  1 
Forward  bending  and  side-flinging  of  I  then  arm 

arms  [   raising. 

Arm  flinging  forward  and  sideways 


with  alternate  foot 
placings,  heel  rais- 
ing (separate)  and 
knee  bending. 


Such  complex  movements  represent  a  good  deal  of  "head" 
work  and  would  hardly  be  suited  for  ordinary  class  work.  They 
may,  however,  be  used  occasionally  in  well-trained  classes  by 
way  of  stimulating  interest. 


146  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Alternate  knee  bending. 

From    (wide)    stride  standing  position   with  the  arms  in  hip  grasp 

or  neck  grasp  position. 
May  be  done  as   a  simple  2  count  movement  on   each   side,   or  as 

a  continuous  movement  from  one  side  to  the  other  (1  count  each 

way),   both   knees   being   straight   at   the   moment   of   passing   the 

central  position,  but  without  stopping  there. 
May  also  be  started  from  the  side  lunge  position.     (See  below.) 

Side  lunge. 

Banding  side  lunge. 


Combined  with  simple  arm  movements  : 

Placing  hands  on  hips  \ 

Arm  bending  ...     .,    , 

Forward  bending  of  arms  wlth  slde  lun*e' 

Placing  hands  on  neck,  etc.,  etc.      ) 

Simple   arm   movements    with    (alternate)    side    lunge,    followed    by 

alternate  knee  bending  once  to  each  side. 

The  arms  remain  in  the  position  reached  on  the  first  count  during 
,       the  two  counts'  of  the  alternate  knee  bending  and  are  brought  to 

the  fundamental  position  on  the  fourth  count,  as  the  foot  is  brought 

back  from  the  side  lunge  position. 

It  is  possible  to  combine  side  lunge,  followed  by  alternate  knee 
bending,  with  2  count  arm  movements,  but  the  latter  should 
preferably  be  asymmetrical,  i.e.,  occur  in  different  directions.  For 
example:  Left  side  lunge  with  right  arm  flinging  sideways,  left 
sideways-upward,  then  alternate  knee  bending  with  change  of 
arm  positions  (2  counts),  return  to  fundamental  position  (4 
count  movement  on  each  side). 

Another  example  often  used  in  bar  bell  drills: 

Side  lunge  left  with  forward  bending  of  left  arm,  side  flinging  of  right 
then  alternate  knee  bending  with  reversing  of  arm  positions  (2 
counts).  Return  to  fundamental  position.  Same  on  other  side. 

Stooping. 

Hip  grasp  st.      1 

Bend  standing 

Cross  (a)  st.        \   Stooping  (and  return  to 

Cross  (c)  st.  starting  position). 

Neck  grasp  st.  } 

Bend  st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  sidew.  or  upw. 
Cross   (a)   st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Reach  st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Cross  (d)  st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  raising. 

The  alternating  arm  movement  in  the  above  may  also  be  combined 
with  heel  raising. 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES         147 

Arching  Movements. 
Principles: 

Doing  the  movement  from  increasingly  difficult  leg  positions,  making 

the  base  narrower  or  more  elongated. 
Doing  the  movement  with  the  arms  held  in  higher  and  more  difficult 

positions. 

Doing  the  movement  from  the  twist  standing  position. 
Combining  arching  movements  with  arm  movements. 
Combining  arching  movements  with  trunk  twisting. 
Doing  an  arching  movement  as  a  part  of  a  rhythmic  compound  or 
alternating  movement,  the  other  element  being  an  arm  or  leg  move- 
ment, or  even  a  compensatory  movement. 

Doing  an  arm  movement  while  holding  the  arch  standing  position. 
Taking  the  grasp  arch  standing  position  at  the  bar  stalls. 
Doing   heel    raising,   alternate   knee   upward   bending   or   leg   raising 

while  holding  the  grasp  arch  standing  position  at  the  bar  stalls. 
While  the  bar  stall  exercises  are  the  most  powerful  types  of  arching 
movements,  the  excessive  lumbar  hyperextension,  which  is  apt  to  be  such 
a  marked  feature  in  these  exercises,  make  them  of  questionable  value  in 
ordinary  class  work.  They  may,  however,  be  used  with  advantage  as 
special  corrective  exercises,  individually  supervised. 

Types. 

Some  of  the  derived  arm  positions  may  be  used  in  the  beginning, 

especially  with  an  untrained  class,  as  preliminary  arching  exercises. 

These  positions  are  then  held  for  a  relatively  long  time  and  only 

repeated  (on  command)  once  or  twice. 
Backward  bending  of  head. 
Backward  arching  or   (bending)  of  trunk. 
Grasp  arch  standing  position. 

Progression. 

Bend,  cross  (a),  neck  grasp,  cross  (e)  and  stretch  standing  positions 
are  the  principal  derived  arm  positions  that  may  be  used  as  pre- 
liminary arching  exercises. 


Standing 
Hip  grasp  st. 
Bend  St. 
Cross  (a)  st. 
Neck  grasp  st. 


backward  bending  (or  moving)  of  head. 


Simple  arm  movements  combined  with  backward  bending  of  head : 

Arm  rotation  (slow) 

Arm  raising  sideways  (slow) 

Arm  raising  forward-sideways  (slow) 

Arm  raising  sideways,  palms  up  (slow) 

Arm  raising  forward-sideways,  palms  up,  and 


sinking  sideways-downward  (slow) 

Reach  st.  arm  parting  (slow) 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sideways  (slow) 

Cross  (d)  st.  arm  raising  (slow) 

Arm  raising  sideways-upward  'slow) 

Arm  circumduction   2  counts,  slowi 

Arm  circumduction  (3  counts,  quick) 


with  backward 
bending  of  head. 

(Some  of  these  may 
also  be  done  quickly  and 
repeated  rhythmically. 
They  are  then  more  like 
shoulder  blade  exercises 
than  arching  move'nts.) 


148 


C.y.MNASTIC  TEACHING 


Hip  grasp 
Bend 
Cross  (a) 
Cross  (c) 
Cross  (d) 
Cross  (e) 
Neck  grasp 
Oblique  stretch 
Stretch 


stride  standing 
standing 
close  standing 
walk  (b)  standing 
walk  (a)  twist  standing 
stride  twist  standing 
twist  standing 
close  twist  standing 


backward  arching 
of  trunk. 


Simple  quick  arm  movements  combined  with  alternate  foot  placings  and 
followed  by  backward  arching  of  trunk: 


Placing  hands  on  hips 

Arm  bending 

Forward  bending  of  arms 

Placing  hands  on  neck 

Arm  flinging  sideways 

YI  sideways  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  forward-upward 

Arm  flinging  sideways-upward 

Arm  circumduction,  2  counts 


with  alternate  foot 
placing  sideways 
or  forward, 


and  backward 
arching  of 
trunk. 


Simple  slow  arm  movements  from  derived  arm  and  leg  positions  combined 
with  backward  arching  of  trunk : 


Bend 

stride  st. 

Reach 

standing 

close  st. 

Cross  (c) 

walk  (b)  st. 

Cross  (b) 

walk  (a)  twist  st. 

Cross  (e) 

stride  twist  st. 

twist  St. 

Cross  (d) 

close  twist  st. 

Stretch    . 

slow  arm  stretch,  sideways  or 

upward 
slow    arm    parting    or    arm 

raising 

slow  arm  rotation 
slow  arm  rotation 
slow  arm  stretch,  sideways 

or  upward 
slow  arm  raising 
slow  arm  parting 


with 

backward 

arching 

of  trunk. 


Simple   arm  movements   alternating  with   the   arching   movements,   done 
from  derived  arm  and  leg  position  as  well  as  the  twist  st.  pos. : 


Bend 

Cross  (a) 

Cross  (e) 

stride  st. 

Neck  grasp 
Bend 
Cross  (d) 

standing 
close  st. 
walk  (b)  st. 
walk  (a) 
twist  st. 
stride  twist  st. 

backward 
arching  of 
trunk,  al- 
ternating 
with 

Neck  grasp 

close  twist  st. 

Cross  (e) 

Stretch 

arm  stretching  sideways, 
arm  flinging  sideways, 
arm     stretching    sideways, 

palms  up  or  down, 
arm     stretching    sideways, 

palms  up  or  down, 
arm     stretching     obliquely 

upward, 
arm  raising, 
arm  stretching  upward, 
arm  bending  and  stretching 

upward  or  arm  parting. 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES 


149 


Compound  (2  count)  arm  movements  the  first  part  of  which  is  quick 
and  combined  with  alternate  foot  placing  sidew.  or  forw.,  the  second 
part  slow  and  combined  with  backward  arching  of  trunk : 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways 
Arm  flinging  forward  and  arm  parting 
%  sideways  bending  of  arms  and  arm 

stretching  sideways 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upward 
Arm  flinging  sideways  and  arm  raising 
Arm  flinging  forward  and  arm  raising 
Y*  sideways  bending  of  arms  and  arm 

stretching  upward 
Arm  flinging  forward-upward  and  arm 

parting 

Arm  movements  with  trunk  twisting  and  simultaneous  backw.  arching  of 
trunk : 


with  alternate 

foot  placing 

sideways  or 

forward 


>and  backward 
arching  of 
trunk. 


Standing 
Stride  st. 
Walk  (a)  st. 

Bend  st. 
Cross  (e)  st. 


Arm  circumduction  with  trunk  twisting  and  simul- 
taneous arching  of  trunk. 


slow  arm  stretching 
sideways  or  upward 


with  trunk  twisting  and 
arching  of  trunk. 


Simple  quick  arm  movements  combined  with  alternate  foot  placing 
obliquely  forw.-outw.,  and  followed  by  trunk  twisting  to  same  side, 
then  by  backw.  arching  of  trunk  (6  counts)  : 

(Placing  hands  on  hips) 

Arm  bending 

Forward  bending  of  arms 

Placing  hands  on  neck 

Arm  flinging  sideways 

YL  sideways  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  forward-upward 

Arm  flinging  sideways-upward 

Arm  circumduction 


with  alter- 

nate fo<5t 
placing 
obliquely 
forward- 

then  trunk 
twisting, 

and  back- 
t-  ward  arch- 
ingoftrunk. 

outward, 

Simple,  quick  arm  movements  combined  with  alternate  foot  placing 
obliquely  forward-outward  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting  to  same 
side,  followed  by  backw.  arching  of  trunk.  These  are  4  count  cycles, 
the  increased  difficulty  consisting  in  the  triple  combination  of  arm 
and  leg  movement  with  trunk  twisting.  The  movements  are  the  same 
as  those  enumerated  in  the  preceding  column. 

Compound  (2  count)  auick  arm  movements,  the  first  part  of  which  is 
combined  with  alternate  foot  placing  sidew.  or  obliquely  forw.-outw., 
the  second  with  trunk  twisting.  The  position  thus  reached  is  held 
during  the  slow  arching  movement.  These  are  6  count  cycles : 


Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways 
Forward  bending  and   side-flinging  of 

arms 
y^  sideways  bending  of  arms  and  arms 

stretching  sideways 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upward 
>£  sideways  bending  of  arms  and  arm 

stretching  upward 


with  alternate  foot  I  followed 
placing    sideways     by  back- 
or   obliquely    for-  >     ward 
ward-outward  and      arching 
trunk' twisting,       J  of  trunk. 


150  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Compound  (2  count)  arm  movements,  the  first  part  of  which  is  quick  and 
combined  with  alternate  foot  placing  sidew.,  or  obliquely  outw.,  the 
second  part  slow  and  combined  with  trunk  twisting  and  simultaneous 
backw.  arching  of  trunk.  These  are  4  count  cycles,  extremely  difficult 
to  do  well. 


Arm  bending  with  alternate  foot  placing  sideways 

or  outward,  arm  stretching  sideways 
%  sideways  bending  of  arms  with  alternate  foot 

placing,  arm  stretching  sideways 
Arm   bending  with   alternate  foot   placing,    arm 

stretching  upward 
}4  sideways  bending  of  arms  with  alternate  foot 

placing,  arm  stretching  upward 
Arm  flinging  forward-upward  with  alternate  foot 

placing,  arm  parting 


with  twisting  and 
backward  arching 
of  trunk. 


Compensatory  Exercises. 
Types. 

Forward  bending  of  trunk. 

Forward-downward  bending  of  trunk,  with  straight  upper  back  and 

arms  held  in  the  various  derived  starting  positions. 
Forward-downward    bending    of    trunk,    with    straight    upper    back, 

combined  with  arm  movements   forward,  making  efforts  to  touch 

the  floor  with  the  hands. 

These  are  all  general  back  exercises  and  their  progression  will 
be  illustrated  under  that  head. 

Stooping.    Progression  of  this  type  has  been  given  under  leg  exercises. 

Knee  upward  bending. 

Leg  flinging  forward-upward. 

The    progression    of    these    types    will    be    illustrated    under 
abdominal  exercises,  to  which  group  they  belong. 


Lateral  Trunk  Exercises. 
Principles. 

Increasing  weight  leverage  by  carrying  the  arms  higher. 
Varying  the  base : 

(1)  Making  the  starting  position  more  secure  in  order  to  facilitate 
greater  range  or  more  perfect  localization  of  the  movement. 

(2)  Reducing  the  base,  thereby  introducing  the  balance  element  and 
thus  increasing  the  difficulty  of  the  movement. 

Alternating  and  combining  with  arm  or  leg  movements,  or  both. 

Doing  arm  movements   from  twist  standing  position. 

Doing  side  bending  of  trunk  from  the  twist  standing  position. 

Doing  leg  or  arm  movements,  or  both,  from  side  falling  position. 

Combining  arm  movements  with  leg  flinging  sideways. 

[In  exercises  at  the  bar  stalls  the  arms  or  legs  are  fixed,  thereby 

giving   opportunity    for    greater    range    and    weight    leverage    and 

better  localization.] 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES 


151 


Types. 


Trunk  twisting.  Side  bending  of  trunk.  Leg  raising  or  flinging 
sideways.  Side  falling  position.  Charges. 

[Bar  stall  exercises :  Foot  grasp  standing  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Foot  grasp  sitting  backward  leaning  and  twisting  of  trunk.  Side 
lying  side  bending  of  trunk.  Grasp  side  arch  standing  leg  fling- 
ing sideways.  Side  holding.] 


Progression. 

Trunk  twisting. 

Bend 
Cross  (a) 
Neck  grasp 
Cross  (c) 
Cross  (e) 
(Stretch) 

stride  st. 
walk  (a)  st. 
walk  (b)  st. 
standing 
close  st. 

trunk  twisting. 


Alternating  with  arm  movements : 
Bend  I  stride  st.  1      trunk 


farm  stretching  sideways. 

Cross  (a)       Ictamiine  \  twistir)S  J  arm  flinging  sideways. 
Neck  grasp  (   ,          .g  f  alternat-  |  arm  stretching  sideways  or  upward. 
T>~*«~I  I  ciose  st.  i   • _  — '..i,  .4.^1,1—  „ 


Bend 


ing  with  I  arm  stretching  upward. 


All  the  way  from  one  side  to  the  other  in  one  continuous  quick  movement : 

Bend  1 

Cross  (a)      (stride  st.  alternate  trunk  twisting  from  one 

Neck  grasp  [  side  to  the  other. 

Cross  (c)      J 

All  the  way  from  one  side  to  the  other,  alternating  with  arm  movements: 

/   N  stride  st. 

Cross  (a) 


Simple  arm  movements  combined  with  leg  movements,  and  followed  by 
trunk  twisting: 


Arm  bending 
Forward  bending  of  arms 
Placing  hands  on  neck 
Arm  flinging  sideways 
Bend  st.   arm  stretching 
sideways 


with  alternate  foot  placing 
sideways,  obliquely  outward  or 

forward, 

or  with  closing  of  feet, 
or  with  oblique  charge, 


and 

trunk 

twisting. 


Arm  movements  from  twist  standing  position : 


Bend 
Cross  (a) 
Cross  (c) 
Cross  (e) 
Cross  (d) 
Stretch 

stride 
walk  (a) 
>  walk  (b) 
close 
twist  st. 

twist 
stand- 
ing 

arm  stretching  sideways  or  upward. 

arm  flinging  sideways. 

arm  rotation. 

arm  rotation  or  stretch,  sidew.  or  upw. 

arm  raising. 

arm  parting. 


152 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


Simple  arm  movements  combined  with  alternate  foot  placings  or  oblique 
charge  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting: 

Placing  hands  on  hips 

Arm  bending 

Forward  bending  of  arms 

Placing  hands  on  neck 

Arm  flinging  sideways 

Arm  flinging  forward 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sideways 

}4  sideways  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  sideways-upward 

Arm  circumduction 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upward 


with  alternate  foot 
placing 

sideways,  oblique- 
ly outward  or 
forward, 

or  with  oblique 
charge 


and 
simultaneous 

trunk 
twisting. 


Compound  arm  movements,  the  first  part  of  which  is  combined  with  an 
alternate  foot  placing,  or  oblique  charge,  and  simultaneous  trunk 
twisting,  the  second  is  done  while  retaining  the  twist  standing  position : 


Arm  bending 
Forward  b'd'g  of  arms 
Arm  flinging  forward 
Placing  hands  on  neck 
%  sidew.  b'd'g  of  arms 
Arm  bending 
Arm  flinging  sideways, 

palms  up, 

Arm  flinging  sideways- 
upward 

Arm  flinging  forward- 
upward 


with  alternate 
foot  placing 

sideways  or  ob- 
liquely outw. 

or  with  oblique 
c'harge  and 
with  simulta- 
neous trunk 
twisting;  fol- 
lowed by 


arm  stretching  sideways, 
arm  flinging  sideways, 
arm  parting, 
arm  stretching  sideways, 
arm  stretch,  sidew.  or  upw. 
arm  stretching  upward, 
arm  raising. 

arm  parting, 
arm  parting. 


The  above  compound  arm  movements,  the  first  part  of  which  is  com- 
bined with  an  alternate  foot  placing,  or  oblique  charge,  the  second 
with  trunk  twisting.     Examples  : 
Forw.  b'd'g  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  obliquely  outw.,  then  arm 

flinging  with  trun1'  (twisting. 
Arm  b'd'g  with  oblique  charge,  then  arm  stretching  upw.  with  trunk 

twisting. 


Side  bending  of   trunk: 


Hip  grasp 
Bend 
Cross  (a) 
Neck  grasp 
Cross (c) 
Cross  (e) 
Diagonal  stretch 
Stretch 


stride  standing 

standing 

walk  (b)  standing 

close  standing 

walk  (c)  st. 

walk  (a)  twist  st. 

stride  twist  st. 


side  bending  of  trunk. 


Alternating  with  arm  movements : 


Bend 

Cross  (a) 
Neck  grasp 
Cross  (e) 
Cross  (d) 
Bend 

stride  st. 
standing 
close  st. 
walk  (b)  st. 

(side  bend- 
ing of 
trunk, 
alternat- 
ing with 

Neck  grasp 

arm  stretching  sideways, 
arm  flinging  sideways, 
arm  stretching  sideways, 
arm  stretching  sideways, 
arm  raising  or  flinging  upward, 
arm  stretching  upward, 
arm  stretching  upward. 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES 


153 


All  the  way  from  one  side  to  the  other  without  stopping  in  the  upright 
position : 

Hip  grasp    ] 

Cross  (c)       I  stride  standing  alternate  side  bending  from  one  side  to 
Neck  grasp  I  the  other  in  one  continuous  movement 

Stretch        J 

Simple  arm  movements  combined  with  leg  movements,  and  followed  by 
side  b'd'g  of  trunk: 


Placing  hands  on  hips 

Arm  bending 

Forward  bending  of  arms 

Placing  hands  on  neck 

Arm  flinging  sideways 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sideways 

l/2  sideways  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  diagonally  upward 

Arm  flinging  sideways-upward 

Arm  circumduction 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upward 


with  alternate  foot  plac- 
ings  sideways  or  for- 
ward; or  with  closing  of 
feet, 

or  with  side  lunge, 


and  side 
bending 

of 
trunk. 


The  above  simple  arm  movements  with  alternate  foot  placing  diagonally 
(forward-)  outward,  or  sideways,  followed  by  trunk  twisting,  then 
side  bending  of  trunk.  6  count  cycles. 

The  same  with  oblique  charge  instead  of  foot  placing.  The  trunk  twisting 
is  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  charge. 

The  above  arm  movements  with  oblique  foot  placing,  or  oblique  charge, 
and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting,  followed  by  side  bending  of  trunk. 
4  count  cycles. 

Compound  arm  movements,  the  first  part  of  which  is  combined  with  an 
oblique  foot  placing  or  charge,  the  second  with  trunk  twisting,  fol- 
lowed by  side  bending  of  trunk.  Examples : 


Arm  bending  and  stretch- 
ing sideways  or  upward 

Forward  bending  and  side 
flinging  of  arms 


with  alternate] 

foot  placing  I  and  1  then  side  bend- 
outward  or  I  trunk  \  ing  of  trunk 
with  oblique  |  twisting  J  6  count  cycles, 
charge 


Wide  stride  standing  side  bending  with   simultaneous  knee   b'd'g.     The 
same  with  simultaneous  arm  movements : 

Hip  grasp 

Bend 

Cross  ( 3,^ 

Neck  grasp     stride  st-  side-and-knee  bending. 

Cross  (c) 
Stretch 

Bend  stride  st.  arm  stretch  sidew.  with  side-and-knee  bending. 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  arm  stretch  sidew.  with  side-and-knee  bending. 
Arm   flinging  sidew.  with   alt.    foot  plac.   sidew.,  then   side-and-knee 
bending. 

Arm  bendine  1  with  alternate  foot  placing  sideways,    then 

Placing  hands  on  neck       side-and-knee  bending  with  arm  stretching 
J      sideways. 

Side  bending  of  trunk,  standing  on  one  foot.    See  balance  exercises. 
Leg  flinging  sideways. 


154 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


These  are  quick  movements  repeated  rhythmically  several  times  on  each 
side  (then  designated  L.  and  R.),  or  alternately.  The  position  is  not 
held  at  the  end  of  the  up-stroke,  the  recoil  from  which  marks  the 
beginning  of  the  return  movement.  At  the  end  of  the  down-stroke,  how- 
ever, the  position  is  held  a  brief  moment,  with  the  weight  equally  on 
both  feet. 


Hip  grasp 
Neck  grasp 


UtanHincrIle2  flinging  sideways,  one  side  at  a  time 
g  [alternate  leg  flinging  sideways. 


Combined  with  arm  movements : 

%.  hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  L.  and  R.  with  oppo- 1  sideways, 
site  arm  flinging  {sideways-upward. 

Standing         1  alternate  leg  flinging  sideways  with  opposite  arm  fling- 
Hip  grasp  st.  J      ing  sideways,  or  sideways-upward 

{sideways, 
obliquely  upward, 
upward, 
upward  on  same,  sideways 
on  opposite  side. 

Hip  grasp  standing  jumping  on  toes  with  alternate  leg  flinging  sidew. 
Side  falling  position  (side  leaning  rest). 

Reached  by  (1)  stooping,  (2)  taking  the  prone  falling  position  (front 
leaning  rest),  (3)  turning  90°.  Taking  the  position  and  returning  to  the 
fundamental  standing  position  thus  makes  a  compound  six  count  move- 
ment when  repeated  rhythmically.  The  side  falling  and  the  fundamental 
positions  are  held  longer  than  the  stooping  and  prone  falling  positions. 
The  rhythm  is  therefore  quite  uneven.  The  free  arm  may  be  held  in 
different  positions,  thus: 


YL  hip  grasp 
#  bend 
Yz  neck  grasp 
YT.  stretch 
Y^  cross  (c) 


side  falling  position  and  return. 


Arm  movements  or  leg  raising,  or  both  simultaneously,  may  be  done 
from  the  side  falling  position.  Such  movements,  however,  are  quite 
difficult  balance  exercises,  and  might  be  classified  as  such. 


Yz  hip  grasp 
Yz  bend 
l/2.  neck  grasp 
Yt  stretch 

%  cross  (c) 


side  falling  leg  rais- 
ing, or 

side  falling  leg  rais- 
ing with 


arm  raising  sidew.  or  sidew. -upw. 
arm  stretching  sidew.  or  upw. 
arm  stretching  sidew.  or  upw. 


arm  raising. 


Charges  will  be  described  later,  under  that  head. 
[Types  of  lateral  trunk  exercises  done  at  the  bar  stalls : 

Grasp  side  falling  position.    Leg  raising  from  this  position. 


Grasp  side  arch  #  standing  (one  leg  raised)  |  2  leg  fljnging  sideways. 
Side  holding  (retaining  the  position  reached  by  leg  flinging  sidew.)] 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES         155 

Back  Exercises, 

A.    Shoulder  blade  movements. 
Principles. 

Increasing  the  range  of  the  movement.    Increasing  the  speed. 
Increasing  difficulty  of  coordination,  in  "finding"  and   retaining  the 

final  position;  by  doing  movement  from  difficult  starting  position. 
Increasing  antagonistic  muscular  resistance  by  making  the  movement 

slower. 
Increasing  weight  leverage  and   difficulty  of   coordination  by  doing 

movement   from  starting  positions  in  which  the  'trunk  is  inclined 

forward,  e.g.,  prone  st.  pos.,  charge  pos. 
(Increasing  resistance  by  mechanical  contrivances,  e.g.,  chest  weights.) 

Types. 

Arm  bending;  forw.  b'd'g  of  arms;  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  palms 
down  or  up;  placing  hands  on  neck;  arm  rotation  from  standing, 
cross  (c)  and  cross  (e)  pos.;  arm  flinging  forw.;  l/2  sidew.  b'd'g 
of  arms ;  arm  flinging  forw.-upw.,  and  sidew.-upw. ;  arm  circum- 
duction;  arm  b'd'g  and  stretching  sidew.,  forw.,  upw.;  arm  fling- 
ing forw.-sidew.  and  downw. ;  reach  st.  arm  parting  (or  flinging 
sidew.),  palms  down  or  up;  reach  st.  arm  flinging  upw.;  swimming 
movement;  stretch  st.  arm  parting;  asymmetrical  arm  movements, 
such  as  arm  stretching  in  diverse  directions,  starting  from  the  bend 
st.  pos.;  lowering  one  arm  and  raising  the  other,  etc. 

Progression. 

As  indicated  under  principles.  The  various  types  embody  the  applica- 
tion of  these  principles  in  varying  degrees. 

Many  of  these  types  are  used  chiefly  in  combination  or  alternation 
with  movements  of  other  groups.  In  the  beginning  of  any  series 
of  lessons,  however,  they  may  with  advantage  be  practiced  sepa- 
rately, at  first  on  command  and  later  as  continuous,  rhythmic 
movements. 

B.     General  back  movements. 
Principles. 

Varying  the  starting  position  of  the  legs  so  as  to  increase  or  diminish 

stability,  facilitate  localization  of  movement,  or  increase  resistance 

and  difficulty  of  coordination. 
Varying  the  starting  position  of  the  arms,  thereby  increasing  weight 

leverage  and  difficulty  of  coordination. 
Increasing  the  range  of  the  movement — from  only  a  slight  forward 

inclination  to  45°,  then  to  the  horizontal  and  beyond  (with  straight 

upper  back). 
Doing  head  or  arm  movements  while  holding  the   prone  St.,  prone 

lying,  or  charge  position. 
Alternating  back  movement  with  arm  movements,  or  with  combined 

arm  and  leg  movements. 
Combining  back  movement  with  arm  movements  or  leg  movements, 

or  both. 

Types. 

Forward  bending  of  trunk  (45°  inclination  from  hips). 
Forward-downward   bending  of   trunk    (to   horizontal   and   beyond) 

with  upper  back  straight,  arms  held  rigid  in  one  of  the  derived 

positions. 


156 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


Stooping.  Prone  falling  position.  Foot  placings,  arm  and  leg  rais- 
ing from  this  position. 

Forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk  from  the  (wide)  stride  st.  pos.  with 
simultaneous  movement  of  the  arms  forw.  in  an  effort  to  touch 
the  floor.  Upper  back  is  kept  straight,  however. 

Forward  bending  of  trunk,  standing  on  one  foot,  other  leg  in  line 
with  the  trunk. 

Forward  charge.    Forw.  bending  of  trunk  from  this  position. 

Reverse  (backward)  charge.  Toe-support  charge.  Horizontal  l/2  st. 
pos. 

Oblique  charge  with,  or  followed  by,  trunk  twisting  to  same  side. 
Forw.  bending  of  trunk  from  this  position. 

[At  bar  stalls :  Foot  grasp  charge.     Forw.  b'd'g  from  this  pos. 

Prone  lying  pos.    (on  bench).     Forw.  b'd'g  from  this  pos.] 


Progression. 

Forward  and  forw.-downw.  b'd'g  of  trunk : 


Hip  grasp 

Bend 

Cross  (a) 

Neck  grasp 

Cross  (c),  (d)  and(e) 

Oblique  stretch 

Stretch 


stride  st. 

standing 

close  st. 

walk  (b)  st. 

walk  (c)  st. 

walk  (a)  twist  st. 

charge (b) 

charge  (a)  twist  st.J 


forward  bending  of  trunk. 


Hip  grasp 
Bend 

Neck  grasp 
Stretch 


stride  st.  1 

standing  [  forward-downward  bending  of  trunk. 

close  st.    J 


Simple  arm  movements  with  alternate  foot  placing  sidew.,  or  forw.,  fol- 
lowed by  forw.  b'd'g,  or  forw.-downw.  b  d'g  of  trunk : 


Placing  hands  on  hips 

Arm  bending 

Forward  bending  of  arms 

Placing  hands  on  neck 

Arm  flinging  sideways 

Yi  sideways  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  forward-upward 

Arm  flinging  sideways-upward 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upward. 

Placing  hands  on  hips 

Arm  bending 

Placing  hands  on  neck 

Placing  hands  over  head  (or  arm 
flinging  forward-upward,  or 
arm  flinging  sideways-upward) 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upward 


with  alternate  foot  |  and  forward 
placing  sideways  >  bending  of 
or  forward,  trunk. 


with  alternate  1  and  forward-down- 
foot  placing  [  ward  bending  of 
sideways,  J  trunk. 


The  above  arm  movements,  combined  with  alternate  foot  placing  obliquely 
outward  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting,  followed  by  forw.  b'd'g  of 
trunk. 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES 


157 


Forw.    b'd'g    and    forw.-downw.    b'd'g    of    trunk,    alternating    with    arm 


movements : 


Bend 

Cross  (a) 
Cross  (c) 
Neck  grasp 
Cross  (e) 
Bend 
Neck  grasp 
Cross  (e) 

stride  st. 
standing 
close  st. 
'walk  (b) 
walk  (a) 
twist  st.  j 

Stretch 

forward  bending  of 
trunk,  alternat- 
ing with 


5e       ,   s 
r0! 


stride  st.  forward-downward 
standing  }  bendingof  trunk, 
J  Alternating  with 


arm  stretching  sideways, 
arm  flinging  sideways, 
arm  rotation, 
arm  stretching  sideways, 
arm  stretching  sideways, 
arm  stretching  upward, 
arm  stretching  upward, 
arm  stretching  upward, 
arm  parting,  or  bending 
and  stretching  upward. 

arm   stretching   sideways 

or  upward. 

arm  flinging  sideways, 
arm    stretching  sideways 

or  upward, 
arm   parting  or    bending 

and  stretching  upward. 


Stooping  (deep  knee  b'd'g  with  forw.  inclination  from  hips,  back  straight, 
hands  on  floor)  : 


Hip  grasp  st. 
Bend  st. 
Cross  (a)  st. 
Neck  grasp  st. 
Cross  (c)  st. 


stooping  and  return  to  starting  position. 


Alternating  with   arm  movements : 


Bend  st. 
Cross  (a)  st. 
Neck  grasp  st. 
Cross  (c)  st. 
Reach  st. 


[arm  stretching  sideways,  forward, -upward, 
stooping,    arm  flinging  sideways, 
alternat-'j  arm  stretching  sideways  or  upward, 
ing  with    arm  bending  andstretching  or  arm  rotation. 

[arm  flinging  sideways. 


Alternate  foot  placing  forw.-backw.  from  stooping  pos.,  or  from  prone 
falling  pos. 

From  a  wide  stride  st.  pos.  with  the  arms  in  a  derived  starting  pos. 
bending  downw.  with  straight  upper  back  (keeping  knees  straight), 
and  making  an  effort  to  touch  the  floor,  then  returning  to  starting  pos. 

Bend  ] 

Cross  (a)       I  (wide)  stride  st.  downward  bending, 
Neck  grasp  I          touching  floor,  and  return. 
Cross  (c)      J 


The  same,  alternating  with  arm  movements : 


Bend  stride  st. 
Cross  (a)  stride  st. 
Neck  grasp  stride  st. 
Cross  (c)  stride  st. 
Cross  (d)  stride  st. 
Stretch  stride  st. 


downward 

bending 

touching  floor 

alternating 

with 


arm  stretching  sidew.  or  upw. 
arm  flinging  sideways, 
arm  stretching  sidew.  or  upw. 
arm  bending  and  stretch,  sidew. 
arm  raising  (or  flinging  upward), 
arm  parting,  or  bending  and  st. 
upward. 


158 


Compound  (2  count)  arm  movements  (from  fundamental  pos.),  the  first 
part  of  which  is  combined  with  a  wide  alternate  foot  placing  sidew., 
the  second  (a  forw.  movement  of  the  arms)  with  a  forw.-downw. 
b'd'g  (touching  the  floor).  Upper  back  straight: 


Arm  bending 
Forward  bending  of  arms 
Arm  flinging  forward 
Arm  flinging  sideways 
Placing  hands  On  neck 
Placing  hands  over  head 


with  alternate  foot  placing  sideways  (wide 
step),  then  forward-downward  bending, 
touching  floor.  Return  in  reverse  order. 


Similar  compound,  alternating  movements,  starting  from  and  returning 
to  derived  arm  positions : 


Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sideways  or 
upward 

Cross  (a)  st.  arm  flinging  sideways 

Cross  (c)  st.  arm  bending,  or  forward 
bending  of  arms 

Neck  grasp  st.  arm  stretching  side- 
ways or  upward 

Stretch  st.  arm  bending 


with  alternate  foot  placing  side- 
ways (wide  step),  then 

downward  bending,  touching 
floor,  and  return  in  reverse 
order. 


Compound,  combined  4  count  movements,  in  which  the  "going"  and 
"return"  phases  are  dissimilar.  The  first  part  is  a  simple  arm  move- 
ment— bending  or  flinging;  the  second  is  a  quick  forw.-downw.  bend- 
ing of  trunk  combined  with  a  double  (wide)  foot  placing  sidew. 
(jump)  and  a  simultaneous  forw.-downw.  movement  of  the  arms  in 
an  effort  to  touch  the  floor;  the  third  is  a  (quick)  trunk  raising 
combined  with  an  arm  movement  similar  to  the  first;  the  fourth  is 
a  bringing  of  the  feet  together  with  a  jump  combined  with  a  move- 
ment of  the  arms,  either  to  the  fundamental  position,  or  to  some 
derived  position.  In  the  forward-downward  bending  of  trunk  the 
upper  back  and  the  knees  should  be  kept  straight.  Examples: 

(1)  Arm  b'd'g;  (2)  foot  placing  sidew.  with  downw.  b'd'g,  touching 
floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arm  b'd'g;  (4)  jump  to  funda- 
mental st.  pos. 

(1)  Arm  b'd'g  (or  forw.  b'd'g  of  arms)  ;  (2)  foot  placing  sidew. 
with  downw.  b'd'g,  touching  floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arm 
b'd'g  (or  forw.  b'd'g  of  arms) ;  (4)  jump  to  position  with  arm 
stretching  sidew.,  or  upw.  (or  flinging  sidew.).  (The  repeti- 
tions start  from  this  derived  arm  position.) 

(1)  Arm  flinging  sidew.;  (2)  foot  placing  sidew.  with  downw.  b'd'g, 
touching  floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arm  flinging  sidew.;  (4) 
jump  to  fund.  st.  pos. 

(1)  Arm  b'd'g;  (2)  foot  placing  sidew.  with  downw.  b'd'g,  touching 
floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arm  flinging  sidew.,  or  forw.- 
upw.  (bringing  the  arms  straight  over  head)  ;  (4)  jump  to 
fund.  st.  pos.  (bringing  the  arms,  if  over  head,  down  through 
the  side  plane). 

Forward  bending  of  trunk,  while  standing  on  one  leg.     See  balance 

exercises. 
Forward  and  reverse  charge,  toe-support  charge,  etc.     See  charges. 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES 


159 


[Types  of  back  exercises  done  at  the  bar  stalls: 

Hip  grasp 
Bend 
Cross  (a) 
Neck  grasp 
etc. 


Sfoot  grasp  charge  st.  position 
foot  grasp  prone  lying  position 


Forward  bend,  of  trunk, 
or  arm  movements 
from  these  positions]. 


Abdominal  Exercises. 
Principles. 

Varying  the  starting  position  of  the  arms,  so  as  to  increase  weight 

leverage  and  make  the  movement  more  difficult. 

Varying  the  range  of  the  movement,  so  as  to  increase  weight  leverage. 
Doing  arm  movements   from  positions  sustained  by  static  action  of 

abdominal  muscles. 
Increasing  the  severity  of  the  movement  by  doing  it  with  straight, 

instead  of  bent  knee ;  with  both  legs,  instead  of  one  at  a  time. 
Increasing  the  speed  of  the  movement,  so  as  to  require  more  sudden 

effort. 

Types. 

Standing  knee  upward  bending,  leg  flinging  forw.,  and  leg  circumduc- 

tion. 

Lying  knee  upward  bending,  leg  raising,  and  sinking  sideways. 
Kneeling  (on  one  knee  or  both)  backw.  leaning  of  trunk. 
Prone   falling  position    (front  leaning  rest)    and   foot  placing   forw. 

and  backw.  from  this  position. 
Trunk  twistings. 

[At  bar  stalls: 

Foot  grasp  J^  standing  backw.  leaning  of  trunk. 
Foot  grasp  sitting  backw.  leaning  of  trunk. 

At  chest  weights: 

Arm  movements,  standing  with  back  to  weights,  abdomen  retracted. 
On  quarter  circle: 

Arm  swinging  forw.-upw.  and  forw.-downw. 

On  suspension  apparatus : 

Hanging  knee  upw.  bending,  leg  raising,  etc.] 

Progression. 

Knee  upw.  b'd'g,  leg  flinging  forw.,  and  leg  circumduction : 

'L.  and  R.  (movement  repeated 
on  one  side  at  a  time;  weight 
settles  on  both  feet  at  end  of 

Hip  grasp  st.     [knee  upward  bending       each  movement).     At  first, 
Bend  st.  \  leg  flinging  forward 

Neck  grasp  st.  [leg  circumduction 


stop  at  the  change.     Later 
make  repeated  changes  with- 
out interrupting  the  move- 
ment. 
Alternate. 


,-..  n    .         ,   ("Knee  upward  bending—  L.  and  R.,  both,  alternate. 

(Diagonal)  stretch    Rnee  u£ward  bendinj,  and  stretching  (45°). 

XT  y!"  .   .        1  Leg  raising- L.  and  R.,  both,  alternate. 

j\eck  grasp  lying    [  L      raising.  and  sinking  sideways. 


160  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Kneeling  backw.  leaning  of  trunk  (movement  takes  place  at  knee). 
Hip  grasp 


Bend 
Cross  (a) 
Cross  (c) 


kneeling  (on  one  knee  or  both) 
backward  leaning  of  trunk 


Also  the  various  arm 
movements  from  the 
backward  leaning  posi- 


Cross  (e) 
Neck  grasp 
Stretch 

Prone  falling  position  (reached  by  (1)  stooping,  (2)  extending  legs  back- 
ward) : 

Prone   falling  position   and   return    (4  count   compound   movement). 

Prone  falling  foot  placing  forw.  and  backw.  May  be  done  repeatedly, 
or  only  once,  followed  by  return  to  standing  pos.  In  the  latter 
case  it  is  a  6  count  movement. 

Prone  falling  arm  bending — repeatedly  or  only  once,  followed  by  re- 
turn to  standing  pos.,  making  a  6  count  compound  movement. 

Prone  falling  foot  placing  forw.  and  backw.  (once),  then  arm  bending 
and  stretching  (once),  followed  by  return  to  standing  position, 
making  an  8  count  compound  alternating  movement. 

Trunk  twistings,  arm  movements  and  side  bending  from  the  twist  st.  pos. 
See  Lateral  Trunk  Exercises. 

[Bar  stall  exercises: 

Hip  grasp 
Bend 
Cross  (a) 
Neck  grasp 
etc. 

Bend  I  foot  grasp  sitting  ,  1  followed  by  trunk  twisting. 

Neck  grasp  J  backward  leaning  of  trunk  | 

Chest  weight  exercises  (back  to  the  weights,  one  foot  forw.,  abdomen  in)  : 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  forw. 
Reach  st.  arm  parting. 

Standing  (hands  at  side)  arm  swinging  forw.-upw.,  and  forw.-downw. 
Alternate  arm  swinging  forw.-upw.,  forw.-downw. 
Alternate  arm  circles  ("wind  mills")  with  trunk  twisting. 
(Stretch  stride  st.  forw.  b'd'g  of  trunk.) 

On  quarter  circle : 

Arm   swinging   and   alternate   arm   swinging   forw.-upw.   and   forw.- 
downw. 
Arm  circles  and  alternate  arm  circles  (both  ways). 

On  suspension  apparatus: 

Hanging  knee  upward  bending         "i  Left  and  right. 

Hanging  knee  upward  bending  and  I  Alternate    (one    up,    the    other 

stretching  forward  |      down). 

Hanging  leg  raising  J  Both  legs. 

Hanging  leg  raising  and  leg  parting. 

Hanging  knee  upw.  b'd'g  with  simultaneous  trunk  twisting. 
Hanging  leg  raising  followed  by  trunk  twisting. 
Swing  jumps,  starting  swing,  circles,  upstarts,  climbing,  etc.] 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES         161 
Balance  Exercises. 


Principles. 


Reducing  the  base  by  varying  the  starting  position  of  the  legs. 
Raising  the  center  of  gravity  by  varying  the  starting  pos.  of  the  arms. 
Doing  arm  movements  while  holding  a  pos.  of  difficult  balance. 
Doing  leg  movements  while  holding  a  pos.  of  difficult  balance. 
Doing  head  twisting  while  holding  a  pos.  of  difficult  balance. 
Combining  arm  movements  with  leg  movements  from  a  position  with 

reduced  base. 
Varying  the   intervals  between  commands   for   repetitions  of   simple 

movements,  or  for  the  parts  of  compound  movements. 
Quick   and   unexpected   changes   from   one   side   to  the   other   when 

holding  positions  on  one  foot. 
Doing  a  trunk  movement  while  standing  on  one   foot,   and  holding 

the  position  reached  a  varying  length  of  time. 

Types. 

Toe  standing  position.     Toe-knee-bend  st.  pos. 
Toe  standing  march  steps  forw.,  backw.  and  sidew.  on  command. 
Yt  st.  pos.  (on  one  foot),  the  free  leg  raised  forw.  or  sidew. 
Balance  march  steps,  without  and  with  knee  upw.  b'd'g  or  leg  flinging 

forw.  (touch  step). 
Heel  raising,  heel  raising  and  knee  b'd'g,  especially  from  a  pos.  with 

narrow  and  elongated  base. 

l/2  hook  standing  quick  change  (one  movement). 

l/2  standing  (one  leg  raised  forw.  or  sidew.)  quick  change  (one  move- 
ment). 

Knee  b'd'g  while  standing  on  one  foot  (*/>  st.  knee  b'd'g). 
Heel  raising  while  standing  on  one  foot  (J^  st.  heel  rais.)  with  and 

without  mutual   support. 
Toe-support  charge  position. 
Horizontal  yz  standing  position,  reached  from  the  toe-support  charge 

pos.  by  raising  the  rear  leg,  or  by  the  following  movement: 
y2  standing  forw.  b'd'g  or  trunk  with  b'd'g  of  knee  of  supporting  leg, 

while  the  other  leg  is  raised  backw.  with  straight  knee. 
Yz  st.  forw.  b'd'g  of  trunk  with  both  knees  straight,  free  leg  in  line 

with  trunk. 
Y2  st.  side  b'd'g  of  trunk,  both  knees  straight,  free  leg  in  line  with 

trunk. 

Prone  falling  pos. ;  arm  and  leg  raising. 
Side  falling  pos. ;  arm  and  leg  raising. 
[Walking  on  balance  beams  in  various  ways. 
Holding  the  toe-knee-bend  st.  pos.  in  landings  of  jumps,  vaults  and 

dismounts.] 

Progression. 

Toe  st.  and  toe-knee-bend  st.  pos. : 


162 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


Heel  raising,  heel  raising  and  knee  b'd'g,  knee  b'd'g  with  (simultaneous) 
heel  raising,  without  and  with  arm  movements : 


Bend        I  standing      I  arm  stretching  sideways  or  upward 

Cross  (a)  I  close  st.        I  arm  flinging  sideways 

Cross  (d)  f  walk  (b)  st.  f  arm  raising 

Cross  (e)  I  walk  (c)  st.  I  arm  stretching  sideways  or  upward 


TT.                  [toe  standing      1 

Neck  grasp    wa]k  jaj  f06  **'    knee 

1  walk  (D)  toe  st.J 

Bend 
Cross  (a) 
Cross  (d) 
Cross  (e) 
Stretch 

standing,  close  st. 
stride  toe  st. 
toe  standing 
close  toe  st. 
walk  (a)  toe  st. 
walk  (b)  toe  st. 

arm 
up 
arm 
arm 
arm 
up 
arm 

arm  stretching  sideways  or 

upward 

arm  flinging  sideways 
arm  raising 
arm  stretching  sideways  or 


with  heel 
raising. 


with  knee 
bending. 


When  these  movements  are  done  from  the  standing  and  close  stand- 
ing positions  the  knee  bending  is  done  with  simultaneous  heel 
raising. 


Balance  march   steps  : 


grasp     ^  toe  st   marc|1  stepS  forward,  backward  and  sideways,  on 
Neck  grasp 


command 


Hip  grasp  st. 
Cross  (c)  st. 


balance  march 

balance  march  with  follow  step 

balance  march  with   knee  upward 

bending 
balance  march  leg  flinging  forward 


each  part  on  com- 
mand, or  con- 
tinuous move- 
ment. 


Positions  and  movements  while  standing  on  one  foot: 

st.  position,  the  free  leg  raised  forward  or  sideways 


hook  st'  position 


< 


Quick  changes  from  one  foot  to  the  other  (one  movement)  in  any 
of  these  positions. 

Bend        •»  farm  stretching  sideways  or  upward  j 

Cross  (a)  arm  flinging  sideways  with  knee 

Cross  (d)>)£  hook  st.'jarm  raising  >  stretching 

Cross  (e)  arm  stretching  sideways  or  upward    (forward). 

(Stretch)  I  I  arm  parting  J 

This  group  may  also  be  done  as  4  count  combined,  compound  move- 
ments (usually  quick),  started  from  the  fund.  pos.  They  may  be 
done  on  command,  or  repeated  in  slow  rhythm.  In  the  latter  case 
the  class  should  be  prepared  to  stop  in  any  position  without  warning. 


Reach 
Cross (c) 
Neck  grasp 


st.  (free  leg  raised  forward)  knee  bending  (supporting 
leg). 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES 


163 


or  sideways)  I  heel  raising  (with       1  mutual 

Hip  grasp  Yz  st.  (free  leg  raised  for- 1  heel  raising  [without (support 
ward  or  sideways) 

Bend        1  ,/    f    /frpe  ies,  raised  forward  farm  stretching   sideways  or 
l  /2  st.  itrei  upward  with  heel  raising. 

Cross  (d)  j  I  arm  raising  with  heel  raising. 


y2  st.  (leg  forw.  or  sidew.)  arm  circumduction  with  heel  raising. 
Toe-support  charge  and  horizontal  l/z  st.  pos. : 

Hip  grasp 
Bend 
Cross  (a) 

toe-support  charge  position 


Cross  (c) 
Cross  (e) 
Neck  grasp 
Stretch 


Raising  of  rear  leg  to  hori- 
zontal l/i  st.  position. 
(May  also  be  taken,  with- 
out or  with  arm  move- 
ments, from  standing  po- 
sition.) 


Forw.  b'd'g  and  side  b'd'g  of  trunk  while  standing  on  one  foot : 


Hip  grasp  st. 
Bend  st. 
Cross  (a)  st. 
Cross  (c)  st. 
Neck  grasp  st. 
Cross  (e)  st. 
Stretch  st. 


forward  bending  of  trunk,  free  leg  moving  backward, 

in  line  with  trunk, 
same  with  bending  of  knee  of  supporting  leg  (to 

horizontal  ^  st.  position), 
side  bending  of  trunk,  free  leg  moving  sideways  in 

line  with  trunk. 


The  above  may  be  done  with  simultaneous  arm  movements. 

Prone  falling  and  side  falling  positions  and  arm  and  leg  movements : 

f  alternate  leg  raising. 
Prone  falling  position  :<  alternate  arm  raising. 

[alternate  opposite  arm-and-leg  raising. 

Side    falling   pos.     Arm   and   leg   movements.     See    Lateral    Trunk 
Exercises. 


Principles. 


Charges. 


Varying  the  position  of  the  arms  to  increase  weight  leverage  and  diffi- 
culty of  coordination. 

Returning  by  follow  step.     Facing  90°  at  the  change. 

Combining  charge  with  arm  movements. 

Doing  arm  movements  while  holding  charge  position. 

Doing  charges  and  arm  movements  as  combined,  compound  move- 
ments. 

Doing  trunk  movements  while  holding  charge  position. 

Combining  charges  with  trunk  twisting  (and  with  head  twisting). 

Doing  arm  movements  while  holding  twist  charge  position. 

Doing  charges,  trunk  twisting  and  arm  movements  as  combined,  com- 
pound movements. 

Doing  charges,  arm  movements,  trunk  twisting  and  trunk  bendings  as 
combined,  compound  movements. 


164 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


Types. 

Oblique  charge.    Forward  charge.    Toe-support  (reverse)  charge. 
Reverse   (backw.)  charge.     Reverse  oblique  charge. 


Progression. 

Hip  grasp  st. 
Bend  st. 


Clique 


[charge. 


Neck  grasp  st.  J  Reverse  oblique  J 

or,  preferably, 

Placing  hands  on  hips 
Arm  bending 
Placing  hands  on  neck 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upward 
Arm  flinging  forward-upward,  or  side- 
ways-upward 


with  I  obl'clue  charge. 

}  reverse  oblique  charge. 


Placing  hands  on  hips 

Arm  bending 

Forward  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  sideways 

Cross  (a)  st.  arm  flinging  sideways 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sideways,  or 
upward 

X  sideways  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  forward-upward,  or  side- 
ways-upward 


f  forward  charge, 
with  <  toe-support  charge. 

[  reverse(backw.)charge. 


Arm  movements  may  be  done  repeatedly  from  some  of  the  above  charge 
positions,  or  only  once.  In  the  latter  case  the  whole  is  done  as  a 
combined,  compound  movement : 


Arm  bending 

Forw.  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  sidew. 

Arm  flinging  sidew., 
palms  up 

Placing  hands  on  neck 

%  sidew.  bending  of 
arms 

Placing  hands  over 
head,  or 

Arm  flinging  forward- 
upward 


(oblique 
forward 
toe  support 
reverse 
reverse  obi. 


charge, 
then 


arm    str.   sidew. 

or  upw. 
arm     flinging 

sidew. 

arm  rotation, 
arm  raising. 

arm  str.  upw. 
arm    str.   sidew. 

or  upw. 
arm  parting. 

arm  parting. 


Charges  followed  by,  or  combined  with,  trunk  and  arm  movements : 


Arm  bending  with 
Forward  bending  of 

arms  with 
Placing     hands    on 

neck  with 


oblique  charge 

reverse  oblique 
charge 


and  trunk   twisting 

or 
with  trunk  twisting 


(to  same 
side, 
to  oppo- 
siteside. 


PROGRESSION  OF  FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES 


165 


Arm  movements  may  follow  the  trunk  twisting,  or  they  may  be  done 
simultaneously,  thus: 


Arm  bending  with  1  obi.  charge  1  [  arm  str.  sidew 

Forward    bending  [  reverse  obi.  >  then  <  arm    flinging 
of  arms  with  charge  sidew. 


(with  ' 
twistii 
same 


trunk 

twisting  to 
same     side 
I    (asch'rge). 


with  trunk 
twisting 
to  either 
side. 


(obi.  charge!  f  arm  str.  upw.,  or 

reverse  obi.  \  then  <      one  upw.,  the 
charge       J  [     other  downw. 

(When  the  trunk  twisting  is  done  to  the  opposite  side  and  the  single 
arm  stretching  upw.  is  on  the  same  side  as  the  charge,  a  head 
twisting  to  the  same  side  may  be  added.) 

Placing  hands  on  hips 

Arm  bending 

Forw.  bending  of  arms 

Arm  flinging  sidew. 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sidew. 

or  upw. 

Placing  hands  on  neck 
l/z  sidew.  bending  of  arms 
Arm   flinging  forw.-upw.,  or 

sidew. -upw. 


fforw.  I  charge,  then  forw. 

with    toe-support       ^ 
[reverse         J 


(Arm  stretching  forw.  (touching  the  floor) 
may  be  done  with  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Usually  done  as  an  indefinite  movement) 


Placing  hands  on  hips  ]  f  obi.  charge, 

Arm  bending  [  ..,  I  reverse  obi. 

Placing  hands  on  neck  |  j      charge, 

Arm  flinging  upward    J  Uhenorwith 


trunk  twisting  to  same 
side,  followed  by  forw. 
bending  of  trunk;  or 
trunk  twisting  to  oppo- 
site side  followed  by 
side  bending  of  trunk. 


These  are  6  count  compound  movements  when  the  trunk  twisting 
follows  the  charge,  4  count  combined,  compound  movements  when 
the  trunk  twisting  and  the  charge  occur  simultaneously.  The  dis- 
tinction is  indicated  by  the  words  "then"  and  "with." 

In  this  last  group  arm  stretchings  may  also  follow  or  be  combined 
with  the  trunk  twisting,  or  be  combined  with  the  forw.  b'd'g  and 
side  b'd'g  of  trunk.  Examples : 

I  obi.  charge,!  arm  str.  sidew.,  orl  ("forward 

reverse  obi.  >    upw.,  with  trunk  >then<  bending 
charge,       J     twisting,  [of  trunk. 

TJ      j  [obi.   charge  [with  trunk  twisting  and  sim-!  followed  by 

/  \    .   \  reverse  obi.  \    ultaneous  arm  stretching  (or  [forw.  bend- 

c'l     charge       [  flinging)  sidew.  or  upw.,        J  ingof trunk. 

[with  simultaneous  [then  forw.  bending 

<  trunk  twisting   to  \  of  trunk  with  arm 

{     charge  [ same  side,  [  stretching  forw. 

[with  simultaneous  [then  side  bending 
<  trunk  twisting  to  I  of  trunk  with  arm 
[opposite  side,  [stretching  sidew. 

Most  complex  movements  of  this  kind  would  be  extremely  difficult 
to  do  in  an  acceptable  manner  as  definite  exercises.  Some  of  them, 
however,  are  often  used,  without  too  much  attention  to  detail,  as 
composite,  indefinite  movements,  for  the  all-round  muscular  exer- 
cise they  represent. 


Armbendingj^-f,' 


with 


166  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

7.     PROGRESSION  OF  APPARATUS  EXERCISES. 

General  Considerations.  As  previously  suggested  gymnastic 
apparatus  work  may  for  convenience  be  grouped  under  three 
main  heads :  Suspension  Exercises ;  Arm  Support  Exercises ; 
Jumping  and  Vaulting.  The  progression  of  these  is,  as  in  the 
case  of  free-standing  exercises,  partly  a  matter  of  definiteness  or 
"good  form" — precision,  good  posture,  balance  and  proper  weight 
distribution,  vigor,  speed  and  animation.  In  apparatus  exercises, 
also,  complexity  and  severity  are,  perhaps  even  more  than  in 
free-standing  work,  determining  factors  in  progression.  In 
apparatus  work  complexity — and  hence  progression — cannot  so 
readily  or  to  so  great  an  extent  be  made  synthetic,  i.e.,  be  ex- 
pressed in  terms  of  combination  and  alternation  of  simple,  definite 
movements,  as  in  the  case  of  free-standing  exercises.  It  is  rather 
a  matter  of  careful  selection  and  definition  of  types,,  with  the  right 
estimation  and  proper  grading  of  these  types,  according  to  their 
inherent  character,  in  the  order  of  their  difficulty  or  severity  or 
both.  Most  of  these  types  are  relatively  complex  movements — 
composite,  blended  and  not  capable  of  much  subdivision.  Hence 
they  cannot  always  be  arranged  in  a  way  to  satisfy  all  demands 
of  a  logical  progression.  There  are  often  "gaps"  which  cannot 
be  satisfactorily  filled.  Types  or  combinations  which  might  serve 
as  intermediate  or  preparatory  steps  are  sometimes  wanting ;  or,  if 
devised  and  defined  on  theoretical  grounds,  based  on  attempted 
analysis  or  subdivision,  may  be  more  difficult  in  some  respects 
than  the  exercises  for  which  they  are  intended  as  a  preparation. 
Thus  it  happens  in  some  cases  that,  while  there  is  a  great  abun- 
dance and  variety  of  material  suitable  for  more  or  less  advanced 
classes,  there  may  be  a  scarcity  of  simple,  easy  and  yet  interest- 
ing exercises  which  may  be  used  as  preparatory  work  in  classes 
of  less  ability  or  training.  The  reverse  may  be  true  in  other 
cases.  The  different  pieces  of  apparatus,  as  well  as  the  different 
types  of  exercises,  vary  in  this  respect.  Again,  many  exercises 
may  be  performed,  with  more  or  less  modification,  on  more  than 
one  apparatus.  As  has  already  been  pointed  out,  a  given  type  may 
thus  represent  varying  degrees  of  difficulty  when  done  on  different 
pieces  of  apparatus.  This  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  and 
taken  advantage  of  as  far  as  possible.  With  a  fairly  complete 
equipment  a  more  finely  graded  and  comprehensive  progression 
is  thus  possible  in  many  lines,  when  it  would  otherwise  have  to 
be  uneven  or  inadequate. 

Among  the  factors  which  should  be  considered  in  progression 
of  apparatus  work  are:  range  of  movement,  momentum  of  the 
body,  variations  in  the  weight  distribution  on  arms  and  legs,  in 


PROGRESSION  OF  APPARATUS  EXERCISES  167 

the  leverage  of  the  weight  to  be  moved,  in  the  stability  of  the 
equilibrium.  Additions  to  or  modifications  of  exercises  with  a 
view  to  introduce  variations  of  these  conditions  are  therefore 
important  elements  of  progression.  Thus,  for  example,  certain 
types  of  suspension  exercises  may  be  made  easier  or  more  difficult 
according  to  whether  they  are  done  with  or  without  swing  from 
waist  or  shoulders,  whether  started  from  a  stationary  hanging 
position,  or  by  a  standing  or  running  jump  from  the  floor,  whether 
behind  or  directly  under  the  apparatus.  Many  arm  support  exer- 
cises and  vaults  may  be  modified  in  similar  manner  with  a  view 
to  facilitate  their  execution  or  make  it  more  difficult.  Almost 
any  exercise  may  be  made  more  difficult  by  modifying  its  final 
phase,  the  dismount  or  landing,  as  by  introducing  turns,  or  by 
adding  arm  or  leg  movements. 

As  the  field  is  wide  and  the  possibilities  for  variations,  combina- 
tions, and  modifications  are  practically  unlimited,  no  attempt  will 
be  made  to  illustrate  the  progression  of  gymnastic  apparatus  exer- 
cises in  an  exhaustive  manner.  Only  comparatively  simple  and 
easy  types,  suitable  for  ordinary  class  purposes,  will  be  enumer- 
ated and  their  progression  indicated,  at  least  through  the  ele- 
mentary stages.  For  a  more  elaborate  treatment  of  this  topic 
and  progression  of  advanced  types  of  exercises  the  reader  is 
referred  to  manuals  and  compendia  devoted  primarily  to  this 
phase  of  the  subject.* 

Suspension  Exercises. 
Principles. 

Increasing  the  amount  of  body  weight  carried  by  the  arms.  This 
applies  chiefly  to  preparatory  types,  such  as  the  fall  hanging  and 
prone  hanging  positions.  Also  to  various  forms  of  climbing. 

Varying  the  work  on  arms  and  upper  trunk  muscles  by  doing  certain 
exercises,  such  as  hand  traveling,  without  or  with  swing;  with  bent 
instead  of  straight  arms. 

Increasing  difficulty  and  amount  of  muscular  work  by  variations  of 
grasp,  start,  range  and  sequence  of  movement,  and  landing. 

Combinations  and  sequences  of  increasingly  difficult  movements. 

Types. 

[Arm  bending  with  overhead  pulley  weights.] 

Grasp  bend  toe  standing  arm  stretching  with  knee  bending. 

Fall  hanging  position.     Arm  b'd'g,   leg  raising,   and  hand  traveling 

from  this  position. 
Prone  hanging  position.    Circumduction,  change  to  fall  hanging,  and 

arm  bending  from  this  position. 
Hanging  position.    Ordinary,  reverse  and  combined  grasp. 


*For  example,  "Gymnastic  Nomenclature  of  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.";    "Code  Book  of  Gym- 
nastic Exercises,"  by  Ludwig  Puritz. 


168  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Arm  bending,  alternate  arm  b'd'g,  change  of  grasp,  knee  upw.  b'd'g, 

leg  raising,  lateral  swing  and  trunk  twisting,  all  starting  from  the 

hanging  position. 
Hand  traveling  of  various  kinds. 
Climbing  of  various  kinds. 
Swing    jumps    (short    underswing)  ;    starting    swing;    exercises    of 

various  kinds  while  continuing  swing,  such  as  hand  clapping,  change 

of  grasp,  turns,  and  dismounts. 

Inverted  hanging  position  and  movements  from  this  position. 
Circles,  mounts,  upstarts,  and  uprise. 

Progression. 

Grasp  bend  toe  standing  arm  stretching  with  knee  bending. 

The  apparatus  is  grasped  at  height  of  chin.  Progression  consists 
in  doing  the  movement  more  and  more  with  the  arms  and  less  with 
the  legs.  May  be  done  with  the  aid  of  rings,  vertical  ropes,  poles  and 
ladders,  horizontal  and  parallel  bars,  boom  and  high  bar  stalls.  When 
the  last  named  apparatus  is  used,  the  movement  is  best  done  while 
standing  on  one  foot. 

,-,  ,,  ,  ...      fLow  horizontal  bar  and  boom;    parallel  bars; 

Fall.hangmg  pos    ion  vertical  ropes  and  poles;  ^ope  ladders. 


The  body,  face  up,  is  partly  suspended  on  the  arms,  partly  supported 
on  the  heels.  The  lower  the  apparatus,  the  greater  is  the  proportion 
of  the  weight  suspended  on  the  arms. 

I  Arm  bending.  Alternate  leg  raising. 
Touching  floor  with  L.  and  R.  hand. 
Hand  traveling  sideways. 

Bent  arm  fall  hanging  hand  traveling  sidew.  or  backw.  —  Low  boom. 


Prone  hanging  position.  Apparatus  the  same  as  for  fall  hanging  pos. 
The  body,  face  down,  is  partly  suspended  on  the  arms,  partly  sup- 
ported on  the  toes.  The  lower  the  apparatus,  the  more  powerful  is 
the  exercise;  also  the  greater  is  the  lumbar  hyperextension. 


Prone  hanging  position  and  return  by  moving  one 
foot  at  a  time,  by  moving  both  feet  simulta- 
neously 

Prone  hanging  change  to  fall  hanging  position  by 
moving  both  feet  forward  or  to  one  side  or  by 


Any  of  the  above 
mentioned  ap- 
paratus. 


moving  each  foot  to  its  respective  side. 

Prone  hanging  arm  bending — on  rings,  vertical  ropes,  or  rope  ladders. 

Fall  hanging     [Circumduction  L.  and  R.  1 

or  (The   feet  are  kept  on   the  [rings. 

Prone  hanging  (  floor,  as  a  pivot) 


PROGRESSION  OF  APPARATUS  EXERCISES 


169 


Hanging  position.    Any  suspension  apparatus  sufficiently  high  above  floor. 
Mount  to  the  hanging  position ;  dismount  without  and  with  turns. 

Knee  upward  bending,  L.  and  R.,  alternate,  both. 

Knee  upward  bending,  and  stretching  forward,  alternate, 

both. 

Leg  raising  forward,  L.  and  R.,  alternate,  both. 
Hanging-^  Leg  raising  sideways,  L.  and  R.,  simultaneously,  both  to 

one  side. 

Side  swing  from  waist. 

Side  swing  from  shoulder  (with  alternate  arm  bending). 
Knee  upward  bending  with  alternate  twisting  (and  swing). 

Jump,   mount   to   bent   arm   hanging  position,   slow    arm   stretching, 
dismount. 


Hand  traveling. 

Sideways — with  straight  arms;]  High  boom,  suspended  parallel  bars, 
with  and  without  swing;  with  I  horizontal  ladder  (hands  on  out- 
swing  and  alternate  arm  |  side  or  on  rungs),  horizontal  bar, 
bending;  with  bent  arms  J  bar  stalls. 


Forward  and  backward — with  straight 
arms;  with  and  without  swing;  with 
one  or  both  knets  drawn  up;  with 
alternate  knee  upward  bending; 
with  bent  arms 


Horizontal  ladder  (hands  out- 
side). 
Suspended  parallel  bars. 


Forward  and  backward  on  rungs,  one! 
rung  at  a  time,  or  skipping  one  rung    Horizontal  iadder 
or  more  at  each  step;   with  straight    H 
arms,  or  bent  arms.  * 

Rotary  traveling,  turning  L.  and  R.,1 

forward  and  backward,  with  straight  >  Boom  or  suspended  parallels, 
arms,  or  bent  arms.  - 

Rotary  traveling,  turning  L.  and  R.)  Horizontal  ladder  (rungs), 
with  swing  and  alternate  arm  "bend-  \  Traveling  rings, 
ing.  J  Vertical  poles  and  ropes. 

Rotary  traveling,  turning  one  way,  hands  on  I  Boom; 
same  side;  with  straight  arms,  or  bent  arms,  /suspended  parallels. 

Short  jumps  forward,  backward  and  sideways.  I  Horizontal  ladder. 
Long,  swinging  jumps  forward  and  backward.  J  Suspended   parallels. 


Jumps  forward  and  backward  on  rungs;    from' 
sides  of  ladder  to  rungs. 


Horizontal  ladder. 


Rotary  traveling  forward  and  backward  jump-] 
ing  from  one  bar  to  the  other  between  each  >  Suspended  parallels, 
step. 


170  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Climbing. 

Using  arms  and  legs;  I  Bar  stalls;  rope  ladders;  vertical  ropes  (one  or 
Using  arms  only.         I     two  or  across  several);  poles;  inclined  ropes. 

[Oblique,  vertical,  horizon-]  Vertical  and  hori- 

Serpentine  climbing.  <      tal,    turning    alternately  >zontal  window  lad- 
[     L.  and  R.,  spiral.  J  der;  double  boom. 

Swing  jump  (short  underswing). 


Standing  start,  from  one  foot  or  1  High  and  low  horizontal  bar. 
both  feet,  without  and  with  turns.  J  Horiz.  ladder;  suspended  parallels. 


Start  from  the  hanging  position. 

Start  from  the  front  rest  position,  l11'^1"1  low  horizontal  bar  and 

Start  from  the  back  rest,  or  sitting  position,  by  turning! 
L.  and  R.  or  by  dropping  backward,  bending  at  hips  I  High  and  low 
and  passing  feet  between   hands  under  bar;    same  [     horiz.  bar. 
from  riding  rest.  J 

Swing  jump,  catch  and  dismount;  [Horizontal  ladder; 
Long  swinging  jumps.  J  Suspended  parallels. 

Starting  swing,  dismounting  on  first  backw.,  next  forward  or  any  succeed- 
ing swing,  without  or  with  turns  on  landing. 

[  High  horizontal  bar; 
Running  start  from  (one  or)  both  feet,  j  ropes;  rings; 

[rope  ladders;  giant  stride. 

Standing  start,  from  bMh  fee,,  {«><£  boH™ 


Start    from    the    hanging    position  J  High  horizontal  bar  and  boom. 
by  arm  bending,  raising  feet,  etc.  |  Suspended  paral.;  horiz.  ladder. 

Start  from  front  rest  position  by  long] 

or  short  underswing,  or  by  forward  >High  horizontal  bar  and  boom. 
circle.  *• 

Start  from  back  rest  and  riding  rest. 
(As  described  above,  under  swing  }  High  horizontal  bar. 
jump.) 

Swinging  exercises. 

Hand  clapping,  change  of  grasp,  turns;  at  the] 


end  of  backward  or  forward  swing.  lu-   v,  u     •       *  i  u~ 

aise  feet  at  end  of  £«««««*    ct,-oi£>,to«  at  «r,H  I  Hl£h 
of  backward  swing. 


Raise  feet  at  end  of  forward,  straighten  at  end  I 


Jump  forward  and  backward  at  end  of  respective  swings.  I 
Mount  to  upper  arm  hanging  pos.  at  end  of  b'kw.  swing.  |        Kars 

Turns,  cut-offs,  swinging  in  the  inverted  position,  I  j>:ne.s 
circles,  up-starts,  etc.  J 


PROGRESSION  OF  APPARATUS  EXERCISES  171 

Miscellaneous  exercises,  without  and  with  swing. 

{High  horizontal  bar  and  boom; 
horizontal  ladder  and  sus- 
pended parallels  (ends), 
rings,  ropes  (one  or  two); 
poles,  rope  ladders. 

Backward  circle  to  front  rest,  starting  with  al 

jump  from  behind  or  under  the  bar,  or  from  I  High  horizontal  bar  and 
the  hanging  position.     Return  by  forward  f     boom, 
circle,  short  underswing,  side  vault,  etc.     J 

Free  backward  circle,  starting  from  and  return- 1 
ing  to  the  standing  position,  or  the  front  rest  [High  horizontal  bar. 
position. 

Quick  backward  circle,  from  standing  position:  to  floor  (pass- 1 

ing  legs  between  or  outside  arms);  to  arm  support  position.  [Rings. 
Cut-offs.     Upstart  to  arm  support  position.     Combinations.     J 

Quick  backward  circle,  starting  from  and  returning  tol  r>  i 

standing  position.  jKopes,  pol 

Mounts  to  front,  back  and  riding  rest  positions  by  hooking  one' 
knee  or  both,  inside  or  outside  of  hands;  by  circles;  by  front 
and  back  upstarts,  uprise,  swings:  by  pull-and-push  up;  from 
standing,  hanging  or  swinging  start;  with  ordinary,  reverse 
or  combined  grasp;  without  and  with  turns; 


High 

hor. 

bar. 


Followed  by  forward  and  backward  body,  knee  and  seat  circles; 
vaults,  turns  and  swings. 

Various  combinations  and  sequences  of  any  of  these,  finished 
by  direct  forward  or  backward  dismounts;  by  vaults,  short 
underswing,  knee  and  hock  circles;  without  and  witii  turns; 
by  snap-off  and  somersaults,  or  long  underswing  and  somer- 
saults. 


Arm  Support  Exercises* 
Types. 

Prone  falling  position   (front  leaning  rest). 
Side  falling  position  (side  leaning  rest). 
Front  rest.     Oblique  front  rest. 
"Free"  front  rest.     Hand  stand. .  Hand  spring. 
Back  rest.    Oblique  back  rest. 
Cross  rest.    Riding  rest. 

Leg  circles  through  "free"  front  rest  and  "free"  riding  rest. 
Swings  and  leg  circles  through  cross  rest. 

Mounts,  upstarts  and  miscellaneous  exercises,  starting  from  or  passing 
through  any  of  these  positions. 

Prone  falling  position  (front  leaning  rest). 

From  running  or  standing  start,  as  a  preparatory  ex- 1  Horse; 
ercise  for  face  vault.  {vaulting  box. 

Preceded  by  a  forward  and  backward  swing.     Parallel  bars. 


*As  the  author  is  opposed  to  the  extensive  practice  of  this  class  of  exercises,  only  a 
few  types  will  be  enumerated,  chiefly  those  which  occur  as  parts  of  vaults  and  suspen- 
sion exercises. 


172  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Side  falling  position  (side  leaning  rest). 

From   running   or  standing  start,    as  a  pr 


Front  rest  (balance  weighing)   position. 

From  running  or  standing  start;]  Horse  (with  and  without  pommels); 
preceded  by  swing  (parallel  I  buck.  Low  and  high  horizontal 
bars).  Dismount  without  and  I  bar  and  boom.  Parallel  bars, 
with  turns.  J  hands  on  either  bar. 

Oblique  front  rest  position. 

Sustained  or  momentary.     One  hand  on  each  bar.          1 
Preceded  by  forward  and  backward  swing,  or  by  di-  1  T>      n  i  K 

rect  mount. 
Dismount  to  either  side,  without  and  with  turns. 

"Free"  front  rest  (momentary  horiz.  pos.,  supported  on  arms). 
From   running  or  standing  start,    from   front 


rest;  or  from  swing  (parallel  bars).  With  leg 
flinging  L.  and  R.  or  with  leg  parting.  Fin- 
ishing without  and  with  turns;  or  by  face 
vault  dismount.  Continuing  to  hand  stand, 
high  face  vault,  or  hand  spring. 

Back  rest  position. 

From  standing  start,  facing  or  side  to  ap- 


Saddle  boom;  horse, 
buck,  box;  low  (or 
high)horizontal  bar 
or  boom;  parallel 
bars. 


paratus;  or  preceded  by  swing,  leg 
circles,  inverted  hanging  position,  or  by 
back  upstart.  Dismount  forward  with- 
out or  with  turns;  backward  by  circle  or 
roll,  or  by  dropping  back,  passing  feet 
between  hands  and  finishing  with  short 
underswing. 


Horse  (buck,  box);  hori- 
zontal bar  and  boom; 
parallel  bars. 


Oblique  back  rest  position.    Parallel  bars ;  long  horse. 

Reached  from  forw.  swing  between  bars,  then  passing  legs  outside 

one  bar  until  stopped  by  hand  on  that  side;  or  by  direct  mount. 

Used  as  an  intermediate  sustained  or  transitory  position.     May  be 

followed  by  back  vault  dismount  to  either  side,  by  turn  to  front  rest, 

by  additional  swings,  etc. 
Cross  rest  position.    Parallel  bars. 

Reached  by  direct  mount,  from  end  of  or  between  bars;  from  ends 

of  bars  or  mid-bars  by  underswing  and  upstart,  or  by  cut-offs; 

from  upper  arm  hang  or  swing,  by  upstart  or  uprise,  etc. 
Is  a  starting  or  transitory  intermediate  position  in  the  majority  of 

swings,   turns,   circles,   scissors,   vaults,   rolls,   drops,   upstarts,   etc. 

on  the  parallel  bars. 

Riding  rest  position. 

(a)  Cross  riding  rest-facing  end  of  apparatus]  Para1lel  hars.  horse 
(b)Side  riding  rest-facing  at  right  angles  to  [bJS-  horiz   bar 
apparatus. 

Weight  supported  partly  by  arms,  hands  in  front  or  behind  in  cross 

riding  rest,  at  sides  in  side  riding  rest. 
Used  as  a  starting  or  transitory  intermediate  position  in  swings,  knee 

circles,  leg  circles,  vaults,  etc.,  on  the  above  mentioned  apparatus. 


PROGRESSION  OF  APPARATUS  EXERCISES  173 

Jumping  and  Vaulting. 

A.  Jumping. 

Under  this  head  would  come :  1.  Such  free-standing  ensemble  exercises 
as  jumps  on  toes  (spring  jumps)  of  various  kinds  with  foot  placings, 
knee  upw.  bending,  leg  flingings,  crossing  of  feet,  knee  b'd'g,  cross-step, 
cut  step,  etc.,  leading  up  to  dancing  steps. 

2.  Free-standing    (ensemble)   jump  in  place,  jump   forw.  and  sidew. 
without  and  with  turns,  arm  and  leg  flinging,  rebound,  one  or  more  start 
steps. 

3.  Jumping  down — from  benches,  bar  stalls,  vaulting  apparatus. 

4.  Hop,  step  and  jump  (individual),  each  element  practiced  separately, 
or  two  of  each,  or  any  combination  and  sequence  of  any  two  or  all  three 
elements.    For  this  no  other  apparatus  than  a  mat  or  two  is  needed. 

5.  Standing  broad  jump — single,  or  two  or  more. 

6.  Running  hop,  step  and  jump,  and  running  broad  jump — not  very 
suitable  for  indoor  practice  unless  thick  and  springy  mattresses  are  avail- 
able. 

7.  Running  high  jump. 

(a)  Gymnastic — for  form  and  landing;  from  either  foot  or  both 
feet;  with  turns  either  way;  without  and  with  spring  board. 

(b)  The  various  styles  of  competitive  jump — for  height. 

8.  Hurdling — the  elements  of  approach  and  form. 

9.  Standing  high  jump — front  and  side  jump. 

10.  Tumbling — at  least  elementary  types  such  as  forw.  and  backw.  rolls, 
hand-and-head  spring,  hand  spring,  cartwheel,  dive,  etc. 

The  progression  is  partly  from  the  easier  to  the  more  difficult  types; 
partly  in  improvement  of  form;  partly  in  increasing  distance  or  height. 

B.  Vaulting. 
Principles. 

Progression  from  the  easier  to  the  more  difficult  types;  also  by  doing 

the  same  type  on  different  apparatus. 
Adding  turns,  arm  movements  and  leg  movements. 
Combinations    and    alternations    with    suspension    and    arm    support 

exercises. 

Types.     I.  Horizontal  Vaults.     II.  Vertical  Vaults. 

I.  Mounts :  to  kneeling  pos.  on  one  knee  or  both ;  to  standing  pos. 
on  one    foot   or   both;   to    (cross)    riding   position;    squat   mount, 
straddle  mount ;  rear  squat,  straddle  and  riding  mounts. 

Dismounts:   directly   forward,  backward  or  sideways;   face,  side,  or 

back  (vault)  dismounts. 
Complete  vaults :   knee  vault ;   squat  vault ;   straddle  vault ;    l/2  knee 

l/2  straddle  vault;  l/2  squat  l/t  straddle  (wolf)  vault;  jump  (thief) 

vault;    front    (sheep)    vault;    side   straddle   vault;    rear   squat  and 

rear  straddle  vault;  cross  legged  vault. 

II.  Preparatory  exercises :  free  front  rest  with  leg  flinging  L.  and  R. ; 
mount  to  prone  falling  position  (front  leaning  rest),  to  side  falling 
position  (side  leaning  rest),  to  oblique  front  and  back  rest. 

Dismounts — as  above. 

Complete  vaults:  face  (front)  vault;  side  (flank)  vault;  back  vault, 
oblique  back  vault. 


174 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


Progression. 

I.*  Mount   to   kneeling  position,  on  one  knee  or  both. 

Running  or  standing  start.     When  on  one  knee  the 

free  leg  is  behind  and  kept  straight. 
Dismount   backward,  using  the   hands,  or  forward 

without  using  the  hands. 
Or  the  mount  may  be  followed  by  stepping  (one  foot 

at  a  time)  or  springing  (both  feet  simultaneously) 

to  standing  position,  then  dismount,  as  below. 


Horse,  buck, 
vaultingbox. 


Dismount  forw.,  backw.,  or  sidew.,  ordinary  or  rising,  springing  from 
one  foot  or  both,  without  and  with  turns — 90°  to  360° — arm  and 
leg  flinging  sidew.,  hand  clapping,  touching  toes,  etc. 

Squat  mount. 

Running  or  standing  start.  1  Saddle  boom;  side  horse  with 

Knees  between  arms.     Straighten  to  I     and  without  pommels;  box; 
fund.  st.  position.  buck;     low  horizontal    bar 

Dismount  as  previously  described.      J      and  boom. 

Straddle  mount. 

Legs  outside  of  arms,  knees  straight. 
Dismount  as  previously  described. 


ot; 

horizontal  bar  and  boom. 


,      f  . 

u" 


-t  knee  l/t  straddle  mount. 

One  knee  between  arms,  to  kneeling  position;] 
the  free  leg  raised  sideways,  free  or  foot  on  [ 
apparatus. 

i  squat  y-t  straddle  mount. 

As  preceding,  but  the  knee  is  drawn  up^  R     ..       dd,    boom.  side 
higher  and  the  foot  on  that  side,  instead    ]     c*'  sad(  llebo 


Mount  to  cross  riding  position. 

On  inside  of  thighs.     All  joints  extended. 

Hands  preferably  behind  thighs  touching  ap- 
paratus lightly  or  not  at  all. 

Dismount  forward,  backward,  or  sideways 
(by  l/t  circle  of  one  leg);  or  by  face  vault 
or  back  vault  dismount. 


Long  horse  and  buck; 
parallel  bars. 


Rear  squat,  straddle  and  riding  mounts. 
Like  corresponding  front  mounts,  but  pre- 
ceded by  180°  turn  L.  or  R.     This  occurs 
after  the  spring. 


Apparatus  as  in  corre- 
sponding front  mounts. 


Knee  vault. 

Momentary  support  on  lower  leg,  followed  by  spring.  |  Horse;  buck; 
Knee  should  project  in  front  of  apparatus.  Land-  >  vaulting 
ing  without  and  with  90°  turn.  J  box. 


•In  vertical  mounts  and  vaults  the  hands  should  remain  on  the  apparatus  only  a 
brief  instant.  The  arm  movement  should  be,  like  the  leg  movement,  a  quick  spring. 
Except  in  the  case  of  the  low  horizontal  bar  and  boom  a  running  start  is  preferable  to  a 
standing  start. 


'PROGRESSION  OF  APPARATUS  EXERCISES 


175 


Squat  vault. 

Knees  pass  between  arms  and  are  extended  as  soon 

as  apparatus  is  cleared.     Trunk  erect. 
Spring  from  hands.    Try  for  height.    Land  facing 

forward,  or  with  R.  and  L.  turns  (90°  to  360°). 


Saddle  boom;  side 
horse;  box;  buck; 
low  bar  and  boom ; 
long  horse. 


Straddle  vault. 

Legs  pass  outside  of  arms,  knees  straight,  1  Buck;  saddle  boom;  side 
body  erect.  Spring  from  hands.  Try  I  horse;  low  bar  and 
for  height  and  distance.  Landing  with- 1  boom;  long  horse 
out  and  with  turns  (90°  to  360°).  )  (hands  on  near  end). 

One  hand  straddle  vault. 
As  straddle  vault,  but  using  only  one  hand. 

%  knee  ]4  straddle  vault. 

Momentary  support  on  and  spring  from  one  lower]  Buck;  ends  of 
leg.  Knee  should  project  well  beyond  apparatus.  V  horse  and 
Free  leg  raised  sideways.  J  box. 


2  squat  Yz  straddle  vault  (wolf  vault). 
One  leg,  with  knee  drawn  up  in  front,  passes 
between  arms,  the  other  leg  is  raised  side- 
ways. Trunk  erect.  Spring  from  both 
hands  simultaneously.  Try  for  height  and 
distance.  Turns. 


Saddle  boom;  horse, 
buck;  box;  low 
horizontal  bar  and 
boom. 


Jump  vault  (thief  vault). 

The  spring  is  from  one  foot,  as  in  a  jump.        "j 

Feet  pass  over  apparatus  first.  Hands  give  I  Saddle  boom;  horse; 
support  on  the  descent.  Without  and  with  [  buck;  vaulting  box. 
turns. 

Front  vault  (sheep  vault). 

The   apparatus  is  cleared  with   the   body   as] 


-,    ~* ,.  "',"",  t    1     j-        I  saddle  boom;  horse; 

tion,    but  slightly    arched,    chest    leading.  >  buck- vaultfaur  box 
The  knees  may  have  to  be  flexed  more  or  | 
less. 

Side  straddle  vault. 

The  apparatus  is  cleared  in  what  might  be  called  a  "free"l 
side   riding  position — one  side  leading.     The   90°  turn  is  I  Long 
made  after  the  spring.     Used  as  a  preparation  for  the  rear  [buck, 
straddle  and  cross  legged  vaults. 


Rear  (or  backward)  squat  vault.     Rear  (backward)  straddle  vault. 
As  corresponding  front  (or  forward)  vaults,  but 
with  a  180°  turn  after  the  spring,  so  that  the 
apparatus  is  passed  while  the  body  is  moving 
backward. 


Saddle  boom;  horse; 
buck;  box;  low 
bar  and  boom. 


Cross  legged  vault. 

Like   straddle  vault,  but  with  legs  crossed.     The] 
hips  are  also  turned  considerably,  but  the  shoul-lBuck;    possibly 
ders  remain  square  to  the   front.     Considerable  |     long  horse, 
height  is  necessary. 


176 


GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 


II.  Free  front  rest. 

Without  and  with  leg  flinging  sideways,  landing  without  and  with 
turns. 

Mounts  to  prone  falling  and  side  falling  positions. 
Like  face  and  side  vaults.     Position  momentary] 

or  sustained.  (  Box;  horse;  par- 

Dismounts— face  and  side  vault  dismounts,  with- 1      allel  bars. 


out  and  with  90°  to  180°  turns. 

Face  (front)  vault. 

Body  facing  the  apparatus  at  the  moment  of 
passing  it.  Feet  are  carried  at  least  as 
high  as  the  head.  Weight  of  body  should 
be  well  forward,  arms  straight.  Landing 
without  and  with  turns  either  way. 


Horse;  vaulting  box; 
buck;  saddle  boom; 
low  horizontal  bar; 
parallel  bars. 


NOTE. — When  the  feet  are  carried  lower  than  the  head,  the  vault  is 
called  low  face  vault;  when  considerably  higher,  approaching  a 
handstand,  it  might  be  called  high  face  vault.  The  former  is  done 
over  the  buck  and  ends  of  the  horse,  as  a  preparatory  exercise. 
The  latter  as  an  advanced  form. 


Side  (flank)  vault. 

The  side  of  the  body  is  turned  toward  the  ap- 
paratus. Feet  are  carried  at  least  as  high 
as  the  head.  Supporting  arm  straight  and 
inclined,  so  that  the  hand  is  opposite  the 
waist.  Landing  without  and  with  turns 
either  way. 

Variations:  Low  side  vault.     One  hand  side  vault. 


Saddle  boom;  horse; 
box;  buck;  low  bar 
and  boom;  double 
boom;  parallel  bars. 


Back  vault. 

The  back  of  the  body,  flexed  more  or  less  at 
the  hips,  is  turned  toward  the  apparatus. 
After  the  spring  one  hand  is  lifted  to  let 
the  body  pass.  It  is  then  replaced  and 
receives  the  whole  weight.  Landing  with- 
out and  with  90°  to  180°  turn  toward  ap- 
paratus. 

Oblique  vault. 

This  is  essentially  a  back  vault,  resembling  in   some  respects  the 
jump  vault. 


Parallel  bars;  side  and 
long  horse;  box;  buck; 
low  horizontal  bar  and 
boom;  saddle  boom; 
double  boom. 


The  approach  is  diagonal;  the  spring  is  from  the  out- 
side foot;  only  the  near  hand  is  placed  on  the  ap- 
paratus at  the  take-off,  but  its  place  is  taken  by  the 
other  hand  when  the  body  is  passing  the  apparatus. 
Landing  without  and  with  %  or  }4  turn  toward  ap- 
paratus. 


Long  horse; 
long  box; 
long  buck; 
low  bar; 
double  boom. 


Variations.  One  hand  oblique  vault,  with  outside  turn  (away  from 
apparatus).  The  back  vault  with  outside  turn  on  the  parallel  bars 
is  of  similar  character. 

On  the  double  boom  the  oblique  vault  may  he  done  by  a  spring  from 
both  feet,  or  from  the  outside  foot  only.  The  outside  hand  grasps 
the  upper  boom.  Only  the  outside  turn  is  here  feasible. 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  177 

Screw  vault. 

This  is  a  term  used  to  designate  either  face  vault  with  l/2  (180°) 
turn  away  from  the  apparatus,  or  a  back  (or  oblique)  vault  with 
l/2  turn  toward  the  apparatus.  In  the  latter  case  the  body  must 
be  straightened  from  the  previously  flexed  position  at  the  hips. 

High  face  vault  on  the  double  boom. 

This  consists  of  a  direct  mount  to  a  momentary  front  rest  on  the 
upper  boom,  flexion  at  the  hips  with  release  of  one  hand,  which 
reaches  down  and  grasps  the  lower  boom,  the  body  in  the  mean- 
while turning  toward  the  side  of  the  upper  hand.  Then  follow 
extension  at  the  hips  with  arching  of  the  back  and  what  might  be 
called  a  high  face  vault  dismount,  the  hand  on  the  lower  boom 
being  released  with  a  push  and  the  hand  on  the  upper  boom  being 
shifted,  at  the  last  moment,  to  the  lower  boom. 

Hand  stand :  face,  squat  and  straddle  vault  dismounts. 
The  position  may  be  held  a  varying  length  of  time,  or  the  movement 
may  progress  evenly  throughout.    In  the  latter  case  it  is  a  vault 
in  the  true  sense  and  might  be  named  hand  stand   (or  balance) 
face,  squat  or  straddle  vault. 

Hand  spring. 

Position  may  be  held,  or  the  movement,  quick  or  slow,  progress 
evenly. 

C.    Swing  Jumps. 

Already  described  under  Suspension  Exercises.  When  used  to  repre- 
sent the  Jumping  and  Vaulting  class  of  exercises,  the  swing  jumps  should 
be  started  with  a  run.  The  spring  may  be  from  one  foot  or  both,  the 
approach  perpendicular  or  diagonal.  When  clearing  a  height,  e.g.,  the 
lower  boom,  or  the  rope  or  bar  on  the  jumping  standards  placed  directly 
below,  or  below  and  in  front  of,  the  high  bar  or  boom,  the  approach  may 
also  be  diagonal  or  at  right  angles  to  the  apparatus.  In  the  latter  case, 
the  legs  may  be  raised  either  directly  sidew.,  or  forw.,  or  sidew.-forw.,  with 
a  twist  of  the  hips  and  turn  of  the  body.  The  swing  jumps  may  thus  be 
made  to  resemble  a  side  vault,  a  back  vault,  a  jump  vault  or  an  oblique 
vault. 

When  the  swing  jump  is  done  with  one  vertical  rope  (or  one  rope 
ladder),  the  legs  may  be  raised  and  the  body  then  suddenly  straightened 
with  a  180°  turn  toward  the  side  of  the  lower  hand.  The  movement  thus 
closely  resembles  the  pole  vault. 


8.     PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS. 

The  following  gymnastic  lessons  may  serve  to  illustrate  the 
general  application  of  principles  of  selection  and  progression  of 
gymnastic  exercises — free-standing  and  apparatus — in  the  adapta- 
tion of  the  work  to  high  school  and  college  conditions. 

A  reasonably  well-equipped  gymnasium  and  from  thirty-five 
to  forty  minutes  actual  working  time  will  be  assumed.  Also,  in 
the  case  of  high  school  students,  previous  training  in  the  "definite" 
style  of  work.  In  the  case  of  college  students  such  previous  train- 


178  C.YMNASTIC  TEACHING 

ing  cannot,  as  a  rule,  be  counted  on  and  hence  will  not  be  assumed. 
If,  however,  sufficient  opportunity  be  afforded  to  "prepare  the 
students'  mind"  for  the  character  and  purpose  of  the  work,  so 
that  their  intelligent  interest  and  cooperation  can  be  obtained 
from  the  outset,  the  first  lessons  may  be  made  of  a  fairly  definite 
character  even  here.  If  such  "preparation"  is  not  feasible,  the 
first  few  lessons  for  college  students  should  preferably  contain 
a  number  of  exercises  of  a  more  or  less  indefinite  character,  repre- 
senting lively  action  and  abundant  general  muscular  exercise. 
Then,  by  degrees,  exercises  of  a  more  definite  character  may  be 
substituted,  or  the  types  given  at  first  may  be  redefined,  as  far 
as  possible,  so  as  to  call  for  more  exactness  of  detail,  holding  of 
positions,  etc.  In  either  case  the  class  should  cover  approximately 
the  same  ground  during  the  year's  work. 

As  the  purpose  is  merely  to  indicate,  by  fairly  wide  steps,  the 
progression  of  the  most  useful  and  representative  types  and 
combinations,  only  the  first,  fourth,  eighth  and  twelfth  lessons  of 
each  series  of  twelve  will  be  given.  Each  lesson  is  to  be  given 
three  or  four  times,  except  the  first,  which  need  not  be  repeated 
more  than  once.  This  much  will  probably  be  necessary  in  order 
to  cover  all  preliminaries  in  a  thorough  manner.  The  change 
from  one  lesson  to  the  next  may  be  complete,  or  more  or  less 
gradual  (by  substitution  of  some  exercises).  The  former  is 
preferable.  In  that  case  it  may  not  be  possible  to  give  all  the 
exercises  the  first  time.  Each  time  a  lesson  is  repeated  the 
exercises  are  done  less  on  command  and  with  more  rhythmic 
repetition. 

Series  i.     High  School  Girls.    First  Year. 
Lesson  i. 

I.  Alignment  on  two  ranks.     Numbering.     Open  order  by  forward  and 

backward  steps.    Review  facings  on  two  counts. 

II.  1.    Alternate  foot,  placing  sideways  with  placing  of  hands  on  hips 

(on  command  once  or  twice,  then  repeated  rhythmically).* 

2.  Hip  grasp  standing  heel  raising. 

3.  Neck  grasp  standing  backward  moving  of  head  (and  elbows  with 

chest  expansion.     On  command  three  or  four  times.     Slow, 
powerful  movement;   position  well  sustained.) 

4.  Bend   standing   stooping    (touching  the   floor,   bent  knees,   back 

straight)   and  return. 

5.  Hip  grasp  stride  standing  side  bending  of  trunk. 


*  Generally  speaking,  each  exercise  should  be  given  at  least  once  on  command, 
then  repeated  rhythmically  six  or  ten  times.  In  some  cases  rhythmic  repetition  is 
not  suitable.  Such  exercises  should  be  repeated  only  two  or  three  times  on  com- 
mand. Others  should  be  started  at  once  as  rhythmic  movements.  The  former 
procedure  will  be  indicated  by  "(C),"  the  latter  by  "(Rh)." 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  179 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways   (C). 

7.  Hip  grasp  standing  knee  upward  bending  L.  and  R.  (Rh). 

8.  Bend  stride  standing  trunk  twisting   (C).     (Try  to  move  only 

above  hips.) 

9.  Hip  grasp  standing  jumping  on  toes  with  foot  placing  sideways 

(Rh).     ("Stride  jump.") 
10.    Arm  raising  sideways  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.     Flank  marching.     Short  run;   march  around  once;  then  arm  rota- 
tion with  backward  bending  of  head  and  deep  breathing. 


Lesson  4. 

I.  Front  and   rear   marching,   changing   direction    during   march.     Open 

order  by  forward  and  backward  steps,  on  one  command.    Facings 
on  one  count.     Backward  bending  of  head. 

II.  1.     Bend  standing  arm  stretching  sideways  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  stride  standing  alternate  knee  bending    (two  counts 

each  side). 

3.  Arm  circumduction  on  three  counts    (arm  flinging  forward-up- 

ward, then  sideways  with  palms  up,  then  downward),  with 
backward  bending  of  head. 

4.  Alternate  foot  placing  sideways  with  (placing  of)  hands  on  hips, 

and  forward-downward  bending  of  trunk  (to  horizontal  or 
beyond,  upper  back  straight). 

5.  Neck  grasp  walk  (a)  st.  trunk  twisting  (C). 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways  and  downward.     (Uneven 

rhythm.) 

7.  Hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  sidew.  L.  &  R.     (Unexpected  changes, 

without  stopping.     Started  rhythmically.) 

8.  Cfoss  (a)  prone  st.  arm  flinging  sideways  (C). 

9.  Neck  grasp   stride   st.   side  bending  of   trunk.      (Try   rhythmic 

repetition.) 

10.  Jump  forward  with  two    (running)    start  steps,  L.  &  R. 

11.  Bend  st.  slow  arm  stretching  upward  with  backward  bending  of 

head. 

III.  Horizontal  ladder:  Hand  traveling  forward  and  backward  without 

swing. 

or 

High  boom :  Hand  traveling  sideways,  L.  &  R.,  without  swing. 

IV.  Standing  hop,  step;  step,  jump;  two  standing  broad  jumps. 

or 

Vaulting  box :  Face  vault  mount  to  prone  falling  position.     Mount 
to  kneeling  position,  dismount  forward. 

V.  Run,  march ;  or  dance.     Breathing  exercise. 

Lesson  8. 

I.  Front,  rear  and  flank  marching  with  (not  too  rapid)  changes  of  direc- 
tion during  march.  Open  order  by  forward  and  backward  steps,, 
followed  by  facing,  all  on  one  command. 


180  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

II.  1.    Hip  grasp  standing  alternate  heel-and-toe  raising. 

2.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways  with  alternate  foot  placing 

sidew.  and  knee  bending. 

3.  Neck  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  backw.  arching  of  trunk  (C). 

4.  Hip  grasp  standing  alternate  leg  flinging  forward   (Rh). 

5.  Forward  bending  of  arms  with  alternate  foot  placing  forward, 

and  trunk  twisting. 

6.  Bend  close  st.  forward  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm 

stretching  diagonally  upward. 

7.  Hip  grasp  l/2  st.  (leg  forward)  knee  bending  (C). 

8.  Alternate    foot   placing   sidew.    with   hands   on   neck,   and    side 

bending  of  trunk. 

9.  Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  hips.     (If  rhythmic  repetition  is 

tried,  the  position  should  be  held  a  relatively  long  time.) 

10.  Jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  sidew.  and  arm  flinging  sidew.- 

upw.    (Rh). 

11.  Reach  st.  slow  arm  parting,  palms  up,  with  backw.  bending  of 

head    (C). 

III.  Window  ladder:  Oblique   (zigzag)   climbing. 

or 

Rope  ladders:  Climbing  with  hands  and   feet,  each  step  on  count. 
First  one  pupil,  then  two,  on  each  ladder. 

IV.  Running  high  jump  from  L.  &  R.  foot,  with  90°  turn. 
Running  high  jump  from  both  feet. 

or 
Buck:  Low  side  vault  L.  &  R.;  Straddle  vault. 

V.  Run,  or  dance,  or  game. 
Breathing  exercise. 

Lesson  12. 

I.  Front,  flank,  and  rear  marching.     Fairly  rapid  changes  of  direction 

during  march.     Starting  march  and  halting  with  facings. 

II.  1.    Forward  bending  and  side-flinging  of  arms  with  alternate  foot 

placing  forward  and  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  standing  heel  raising  and  deep  knee  bending. 

3.  Alternate  foot  placing  sideways  with  hands  on  neck,  and  back- 

ward arching  of  trunk. 

4.  Bend  stride  standing  downward  bending,  touching  floor  (straight 

upper  back),  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upward. 

5.  Hip  grasp  standing  alternate  leg  flinging  sideways  (Rh). 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching,  one  sideways  the  other  downward. 

7.  Forward  charge  with  hands  on  neck   (C). 

8.  Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

9.  Prone  falling  position  and  return. 

10.  Hip  grasp  Yz  st.  rocking  (cut)  step  forward-backward,  with  foot 

placing  sideways  on  seventh  count  and  change  of   feet  on 
eighth  count   (Rh). 

11.  Arm  circumduction  (forw.-upw.,  sidew.-downw.)  with  backward 

bending  of  head  (C,  first  count  quick,  second  slow). 

III.  Vertical  ropes:  Climbing  (using  arms  and  legs). 

or 
Boom :  Rotary  hand  traveling  forward.     Standing  swing  jump. 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  181 

IV.  Vaulting  box:  Face  vault.    Knee  vault. 

or 
Horse:  Side  vault.     Oblique   (back)  vault. 

V.  Run,  dance,  or  game. 
Breathing  exercise. 

Series  2.    High  School  Girls.    Second  Year. 

Lesson  I. 

I.  Alignment  on  two  ranks.     Front  and  rear  marching.     Open  order  by 

forward  and  backward  steps.     Facings  on  two  counts.     Try  on 
one  count.    Backward  bending  of  head. 

II.  1.     Hip  grasp  standing  alternate  toe  raising   (Rh). 

2.  Arm  flinging  sideways  with  knee  bending,  heels  off   (Rh). 

3.  Bend  stride  standing  backward  arching   (C). 

4.  Hip  grasp  stride  St.  forward-downward  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

5.  Arm   bending  and   stretching  sideways  and  downward    (C  and 

even  Rh). 

6.  Hip  grasp  standing  leg  flinging  sideways  L.  &  R.  (Rh). 

7.  Cross  (a)  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk  (C)/ 

8.  Hip  grasp  walk   (b)   st.  heel  raising   (C  and  Rh). 

9.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  (C). 

10.    Jump  in  place  with  side  flinging  of  arms  (C). 

III.  Bar  stalls: 

Climbing  up  and  down  (each  step  on  command). 
Grasp  high  l/2  st.  arm  stretching  and  bending  with  knee  bending 
and  stretching. 

IV.  Run,  march;  toe  march. 

Arm  rotation  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

Lesson  4. 

I.  Front,    rear    and    flank   marching   with    changes    of    direction    during 

march.     Halts  with  facings.     Begin  opening  order  by  side  steps. 
Head  movements. 

II.  1.     Alternate   foot  placing  outward  with   hands   on   hips,   and   heel 

raising. 

2.  Cross   (a)   stride  st.  arm  flinging  sideways  with  knee  bending. 

3.  Bend   walk    (b)    st.   slow   arm   stretching   diagonally   upw.   with 

backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

4.  Hip  grasp  st.  alternate  knee  upward  bending  (Rh). 

5.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  all  the  way  from  one  side 

.to  the  other  in  one  quick  movement. 

6.  Bend  prone  st.  arm  stretching  sideways   (C). 

7.  Hip  grasp  l/2  st.  (leg  sidew.)  change  feet  in  one  quick  movement 

(C). 

8.  Arm  bending  with  oblique  charge.      (Rhythmic  repetition,  with 

positions  well  sustained.) 

9.  Alternate   foot  placing  sideways  with  hands  on  neck,  and  side 

bending  of  trunk. 

10.  Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  sideways  and  cross- 

ing of  feet  (Rh). 

11.  Arm  circumduction  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 


182  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

III.  Window  ladder:  Horizontal  or  vertical  climbing.     Jump  through  in 

two  movements. 

or 

Rope  ladders:  Climbing  (one  or  two  on  each  ladder)  for  speed. 
Run,  start  swing,  dismount  first  on  backward,  then  on  forward 
swing  (each  pupil  using  two  ladders). 

IV.  Running  leap  from  L.  &  R.  foot  (preparation  for  hurdle).    Hurdle. 
Running  high  jump  from  each  foot,  and  from  both,  with  turns  on 

landing. 

or 

Saddle  boom  (or  horse  with  pummels)  :  Running  free  front  rest. 
l/2  squat  mount  (free  leg  behind),  rising  dismount.  Squat  vault. 

V.  Run,  march,  balance  march ;  or  dance,  or  game. 
Breathing  exercise. 

Lesson  8. 

I.  Front,   flank  and   rear  and  oblique  marching  with   rapid  changes   of 

direction.    R.  &  L.  by  file  and  by  twos. 

II.  1.     Bend  walk  (b)  st.  arm  stretching  upward  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Side  lunge  with   (placing  of)  hands  on  hips. 

3.  Neck  grasp  st.  backw.  arching  of  trunk,  alternating  *with  quick 

arm  stretching  sidew.,  palms  up. 

4.  (1)  Arm  bending;  (2)  foot  placing  sidew.  with  downward  bend- 

ing  (touching  floor)  ;    (3)   trunk  raising  with  arm  bending; 
(4)   jump  to  fundamental  position. 

5.  J/2  hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  sidew.  L.  &  R.  with  opposite  arm 

flinging  sidew.-upw.   (Rh). 

6.  Neck  grasp  toe  st.  balance  march  forw.  (each  step  on  command). 

7.  Arm  bending  with  forward  charge,  then  arm  stretching  sidew. 

8.  Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  alternate  knee  upw.  bending. 

III.  High  boom:  Rotary  traveling  forw.    Running  swing  jump. 
Low  boom :  Front  rest  position. 

or 

Horizontal  ladder :  Rotary  traveling  forward  on  rungs.     St.  swing 
jump.    Short  jumps  forward,  hands  on  outside. 

IV.  Bar  stalls:  Hip  grasp  prone  lying  forw.  bending  of  trunk  (benches) 

(C). 

Hip  grasp  opposite  sitting  backw.  leaning  of  trunk   (benches)    (C). 
Grasp  side  arch  st.  pos.   (outside  leg  raised).     (C). 

V.  Obstacle  relay  race. 

Lesson  12. 

I.  Marching,  as  before.    Also  Fours  R.  &  L. 

II.  1.    Arm  raising  sideways-upward  with  heel  raising  and  knee  bend- 

ing. 

2.  Bend  walk  (a)  twist  st.  backward  arching  of  trunk  (C). 

3.  Alternate  foot  placing  sideways  with  hands  overhead,  and  forw.- 

downw.  bending  of  trunk   (arms  in  line  with  trunk,  upper 
back  straight). 

4.  Bend  charge   (a)   st.  trunk  twisting  to  opposite  side   (C). 

5.  Neck  grasp  st.  alternate  leg  flinging  forw.   (Rh). 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  183 

6.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  side-and-knee  bending  (~C).     (Or,  side  lunge 

st.  side  b'd'g  of  trunk.) 

7.  Arm  bending  and  stretching,  one  sidew.  the  other  backw.   (on 

command,  and  repeated  in  uneven  rhythm). 

8.  Hip  grasp  toe-support  charge  position    (try  rhythmic  repetition, 

with  the  position  well  sustained). 

9.  Arm    flinging    sidew.    with    alt.    foot    placing    forw.,    and    trunk 

twisting. 

10.  Neck  grasp  ^  kneeling  backw.  leaning  of  trunk. 

11.  Hip  grasp  l/t  standing  (foot  behind)  hop  and  "kick"  sidew.  with 

turn,  then  change  feet. 

12.  Reach  st.  arm  slow  parting  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  Ropes :  Climbing  on  two  ropes.     Inverted  hanging  position  on  two 

ropes. 

or 

Boom :  Rotary  traveling  forw.  and  backw. 

Low  boom :  Forward  circle  from  front  rest  position. 

IV.  Saddle  boom  (or  horse  with  pummels)  :  l/2  squat  l/i  straddle  mount, 

rising  dismount.     Squat  vault.     Side  vault. 

or 

Ropes :  Swing  jump  for  height. 
Also:  hop,  step  and  jump,  and  three  standing  broad  jumps. 

V.  Run  or  dance. 
Breathing  exercise. 

Series  3.    High  School  Boys.    First  Year. 
Lesson  I. 

I.  Alignment  on  two  ranks.     Numbering.     Open  order  by  forward  and 

backward  steps.     Facings  on  two  counts. 

II.  1.     Arm  bending  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  knee  bending. 

3.  Arm  flinging  sideways,  palms  up,  with  backw.  bending  of  head. 

4.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

5.  Bend  stride  st.  trunk  twisting,  alternating  with  arm  stretching 

sidew. 

6.  Hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  forward  L.  &  R.  (Rh). 

7.  Arm  bending  and   stretching  upw.    and   downw.    (on   command 

and  then  repeated  in  even  rhythm,  at  first;  later  in  uneven 
rhythm). 

8.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

9.  Hip  grasp  st.  jumping  on  toes  (Rh).    Also  running  in  place. 

10.  Arm  raising  sidew.  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  Horizontal  ladder.*    Two  or  more  of  the  following  exercises: 

Hand    traveling    forw.    and   backw.,    without    swing,    straight   arms, 

hands  on  outside. 
Hand  traveling  sidew.  L.  &  R.,  without  swing,  straight  arms,  hands 

on  outside. 

*  At  the  first  meeting  of  the  class  there  will  probably  not  be  opportunity  for 
much  or  any  apparatus  work,  as  organization,  agreements,  etc.,  take  up  much  time. 
The  apparatus  work  given  below,  however,  is  a  fair  sample  of  elementary  series  of 
exercises. 


184  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Hanging  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (six  to  ten  pupils  at  once). 
Hanging  arm  bending,  repeated  once  or  twice. 

or 

High  horizontal  bar.    Three  or  more  of  the  following: 
Swing  jump  (short  underswing),  from  standing  pos.  behind  bar. 
Hanging  position :  arm  bending  repeated  two  or  three  times. 
Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backward  swing. 
Jump  to  bent   arm  hanging  position,   throw   head   back,   straighten 

arms  and  draw  knees  up  between  arms,  insteps  touching  bar. 
Hanging  position :  change  from  narrow  to  wide  grasp  three  times. 

IV.  Side  horse  (with  pummels).    Three  or  more  of  the  following: 

Squat  mount,  dismount  forward. 

Straddle  mount,  dismount  forward. 

Low  side  vault  L.  &  R.  over  ends,  one  hand  on  pummel,  the  other 

on  horse. 

Mount  to  kneeling  pos.,  step  up  to  st.  pos.,  jump  down. 
Free  front  rest. 

(All  the  above  with  running  start.) 

or 

Running  high  jump  from  L.  &  R.  foot,  without  and  with  90°  turn 

L.  &  R. 
Running  high  jump  from  both  feet. 

V.  Run,  march ;  breathing  exercise. 


Lesson  4. 

I.  Front   and    rear   marching.     Alignment    and    open   order   as   before. 

Facings  on  one  count. 

II.  1.    Alternate    foot   placing   sidew.    with   hands   on    neck,    and    heel 

raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 

3.  Bend   walk    (b)    st.   slow   arm   stretching  upward   with   backw. 

bending  of  head  (C). 

4.  Alternate  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck,  and   forw.- 

downw.  bending  of  trunk. 

5.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.,  sidew.,  and  downw.   (C,  and 

repeated  in  uneven  rhythm). 

6.  Hip   grasp   st.    leg   flinging   sidew.    L.    &    R.    (Rh;    unexpected 

changes). 

7.  Neck  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

8.  Cross  (a)  stride  st.  trunk  twisting,  alternating  with  arm  flinging 

sidew. 

9.  Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  hips  (or  a  mimetic  exercise,  such 

as  catching  a  low  throw  to  first  base). 

10.  Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  forw.-backw.  (Rh). 

11.  Cross  (d)  st.  arm  raising  with  backw.  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  Suspended  parallel  bars.    Two  or  more  of  the  following : 

Hand  traveling  forw.  and  backw.  without  swing,  straight  arms. 
Hand  traveling  sidew.  L.  &  R.  without  swing,  straight  arms. 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  185 

Hanging  alternate  knee  upw.  bending.    (Several  pupils  at  once.) 
Hanging  arm  bending  two  or  three  times.     (Several  pupils  at  once.) 

or 

Ropes : 

Climbing  pos.  (grasp  with  hands,  knees  and  fe'et). 
Fall  hanging  pos.:  alternate  leg  raising;  arm  bending. 
Run,  jump  to  bent  arm  hanging  pos.,  or  raise  legs;  dismount  on  first 
backw.  swing. 

IV.  Buck.    Two  or  more  of  the  following : 

Straddle  vault. 

l/2  squat  l/t  straddle  mount  L.  &  R.,  rising  dismount. 

Free  front  rest. 

Low  face  vault  L.  &  R. 

Knee  vault. 

or 

Standing  hop,  step;  step,  hop;  hop,  jump;  step,  jump;  two  standing 
broad  jumps. 

V.  Run,  march;  breathing  exercise. 

Lesson  8. 

I.  Front,   flank   and    rear    marching,   with    changes    of    direction    during 

march.    Alignment  and  open  order  as  before. 

II.  1.     Reach  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  alternate  knee  bending   (continuous  move- 

ment from  one  side  to  the  other). 

3.  Neck  grasp  st.  backward  bending  of  head  (slow,  backw.  arching), 

alternating  with  (quick)  arm  flinging  sidew.,  palms  up. 

4.  Arm  bending  with  alternate  foot  placing  sidew.  (wide  step),  and 

downw.  bending,  touching  floor   (upper  back  straight). 

5.  Arm  circumduction  (quick)  with  alternate  toe  touch  sidew. 

6.  Hip  grasp  st.  alternate  knee-upw.  bending  (Rh). 

7.  Bend  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  from  one  side  to  the  other  in  one 

continuous  movement,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upw. 

8.  Prone  falling  position  and  return   (C). 

9.  Cross   (c)   stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 

10.  Crouching  start  and  run  in  place. 

11.  Arm  raising  sidew.-upw.  with  backw.  bending  of  head. 

III.  Horizontal  ladder.    Two  or  more  of  the  following : 

Hand  traveling  sidew.  without  swing,  straight  arms,  hands  on  out- 
side. 

Rotary  traveling  forw.  on  rungs  with  swing  and  l/t  turn  at  each  step. 

Short  jumps  forw.,  hands  on  outside,  straight  arms. 

Hand  traveling  forw.  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time,  without  swing  or  turn. 

Hanging  pos.:  2  knee  upw.  bending;  or  alt.  leg  raising  forw. 

Hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  three  or  four  times. 

or 
High  horizontal  bar.    Three  or  more  of  the  following: 

Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing. 

Hanging  position :  arm  bending  three  or  four  times. 

Jump,  start  swing,   dismount  on  first  backw.  swing  with  90°   turn 
L.  &  R. 


186  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Jump  to  bent  arm  hanging  pos.,  throw  head  back,  straighten  arms, 

raise  feet  to  bar  outside  hands   (knees  straight). 
Swing  jump  for  distance,  running  start,  from  both  feet. 

IV.  Side  horse  (with  pummels)  : 

l/i  squat  l/2  straddle  mount  L.  &  R.,  rising  dismount. 

Squat  vault. 

Straddle  mount,  dismount  with  90°  turn  L.  &  R. 

Knee  vault. 

Low  face  vault  L.  &  R. 

or 

Running  high  jump  from  L.  foot  with  90°  turn  to  R. 
Running  high  jump  from  R.  foot  with  90°  turn  to  L. 
Running  hurdle  jump  from  L.  &  R.  foot. 

V.  Run,  march,  breathing  exercises. 


Lesson  12. 

I.  Marching,  etc.,  as  before.    More  rapid  changes. 

II.  1.     Arm  flinging  forw.  with  knee  bending,  heels  off. 

2.  Cross   (c)   walk  (b)   st.  slow  arm  rotation  with  backw.  arching 

(C). 

3.  Hip  grasp  st.  alt.  leg  flinging  forw.  (Rh). 

4.  Alternate   foot   placing   forw.   with   hands   on   neck,   and   trunk 

twisting. 

5.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  and  sidew.  with  heel  raising 

(each  time  the  arms  are  stretched),  uneven  rhythm. 

6.  Forward  charge  with  hands  on  hips. 

7.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  from  one  side  to  the 

other  in  one  continuous  movement. 

8.  Bend  ^2  hook  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  knee  stretching  forw. 

(C). 

9.  "Foul  throw"  (basket  ball  mimetic  exercise). 

10.  Jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  sidew.  and  arm  flinging  sidew.- 

upw.  and  crossing  of  hands  and  feet  on  the  return. 

11.  Reach  st.  slow  arm  parting,  palms  up,  with  backward  bending  of 

head. 

III.  Suspended  parallel  bars: 

Hand  traveling  sidew.  without  swing. 

Short  jumps  forw.  and  backw. 

Hand  traveling  sidew.  with  swing  from  shoulder  and  alternate  arm 

bending. 

Hanging  position;  alternate  knee  upw.  bending  and  stretching  forw. 
Hanging  position ;  arm  bending  four  or  five  times. 
Swing  jump,  standing  start. 

or 

Ropes  : 

Climbing  on  one  or  two  ropes,  using  hands,  knees  and  feet. 
Inverted  hanging  position  on  two  ropes. 

Run,  start  swing  and  raise  legs,  dismount  on  first  backw.  swing. 
Run,  start  swing  and  raise  legs,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing. 
Running  swing  jump  without  and  with  90°  turns  on  landing. 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  187 

IV.  Buck : 

Straddle  vault  with  90°  turn  L.  &  R. 

y2  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  L.  &  R. 

Squat  mount,  rising  dismount. 

Low  side  vault  L.  &  R. 

Straddle  vault  for  distance  on  far  side. 

or 

Standing  side  jump  L.  &  R. ;  st.  backw.  jump. 

Standing  hop,  step  and  jump.    Three  standing  broad  jumps. 

V.  Run,  march;  breathing  exercise. 

Series  4.    High  School  Boys.    Second  Year. 
Lesson  i. 

\.    Alignment  on  two  ranks.     Front  and  rear  marching.     Open  order  by 
forw.  and  backw.  steps.    Facings  on  two  counts.     (Try  one  count.) 

II.  1.     Head  movements.     Bending  and  stretching  of  fingers  and  wrists 

in  fund.,  cross  (c)  and  stretch  positions,  ten  counts  in  each 
pos. 

2.  Hip  grasp  st.  alt.  heel-and-toe  raising  (Rh). 

3.  Arm   circumduction   on   three   counts    (quick   movements)    with 

backw.  bending  of  head. 

4.  Bend  st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  sidew. 

5.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  trunk  twisting. 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.  and  backw. 

7.  Hip  grasp  st.  knee  upw.  bending  L.  &  R.  (Rh). 

8.  Cross   (a)   prone  st.  arm  flinging  (C). 

9.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 

10.  St.  forward  jump  (C). 

11.  Arm  raising  sidew.  with  backw.  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  Horizontal  ladder.    Two  or  more  of  the  following: 

Hand  traveling  forw.  and  backw.,  hands  outside,  straight  arms. 

Hand  traveling  sidew.,  without  swing,  hands  outside,  straight  arms. 

Rotary  traveling  forw.  on  rungs  with  swing  and  l/2  turn. 

Short  jumps  forw.,  hands  outside,  straight  arms. 

Hand  traveling  forw.  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time,  without  swing  or  turn. 

Hanging  position :  alternate  side  swing  from  shoulder  (with  alt.  arm 

bending). 
Hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  two  to  four  times. 

or 

High  horizontal  bar.  Three  or  more  of  the  following: 
Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backward  swing. 
Jump  to  bent  arm  hanging  pos.,  raise  feet  to  bar  between  hands, 

knees  bent;  or  outside  hands,  knees  straight. 
Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing. 
Hanging  position :  arm  bending  two  to  four  times. 
Standing  swing  jump    (short  underswing)    with  90°   turn   L.   &   R. 


188  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

IV.  Side  horse  (with  pummels)  :  • 

Free  front  rest  without  or  with  90°  turn  L.  &  R. 

Squat  mount,  rising  dismount. 

Knee  vault. 

Low  side  vault  L.  &  R.  over  ends. 

Straddle  mount,  dismount  with  90°  turn  L.  &  R. 

Low  face  vault  L.  &  R.  over  ends. 

Squat   vault. 

or 

Running  high  jump  with  90°  turns  L.  &  R.  from  each  foot. 
Running  high  jump  with  90°  turns  L.  &  R.  from  both  feet. 
Hurdle  from  L.  &  R  foot. 

V.  Run,  march;  breathing  exercise. 


Lesson  4. 

I.  Marching.     Perfecting  of  front,  rear  and  flank  marching  with  rapid 

and  unexpected  changes  of  direction.     Changing  from  double  to 
single  file  and  vice  versa.    Open  order  by  side  steps. 

II.  1.    Forward  bending  and  side  flinging  of  arms  with  alternate  foot 

placing  sidew.  and  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 

3.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  backw.  arching,  alternating  with  quick  arm 

stretching  upw. 

4.  Arm  bending  with  closing  feet,  and   forw.-downw.  bending  of 

trunk. 

5.  YI.  hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  L.  &  R.  with  opposite  arm  flinging 

sidew.  (Rh). 

6.  Bend  walk  (a)  twist  st.  arm  stretching  upw. 

7.  Prone  falling  position  and  return. 

8.  Mimetic  exercise :  catching  a  high  throw  to  first  base. 

9.  Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck. 

10.  Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  alt.  knee  upw.  bending. 

11.  Arm  circumduction  (2  counts)  with  backw.  bending  of  head. 

III.  Suspended  parallel  bars  : 

Hand  traveling  sidew.,  on  one  bar,  with  swing  from  shoulder  and 

alt.  arm  bending. 
Hand  travejing  forw.  and  backw.  (one  hand  on  each  bar)  with  bent 

arms. 

Rotary  traveling  forw.  (combined  grasp)  on  one  bar,  straight  arms. 
Hand  traveling  sidew.  (ordinary  grasp)  on  one  bar,  with  bent  arms. 
Standing  swing  jump,  hands  outside  or  inside. 
Standing  swing  jump,  catch  and  dismount. 

or 

Ropes : 

Climbing  on  one  or  two  ropes,  using  hands  and  feet. 
Bent  arm  hanging  pos. :  alternate  knee  upw.  bending. 
Inverted  hanging  pos.  on  two  ropes :  quick  backw.  ]/2  circle  to  floor. 
Run,  start  swing,  pull  up  to  bent  arm  hanging  pos.  at  end  of  forw. 

swing. 
Running  swing  jump  with  90°  turn  on  landing. 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  189 

IV.  Buck : 

Y2  squat  l/2  straddle  mount  L.  &  R.,  rising  dismount. 

Low  face  vault  L.  &  R. 

Squat  mount,  dismount  forw.  with  side  flinging  of  arms  and  legs. 

Low  side  vault  L.  &  R. 

l/2  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  L.  &  R. 

Straddle  vault  for  distance  on  far  side. 

Jump  from  L.  (R.)  foot  to  st.  pos.  on  R.  (L.)  foot,  dismount  forw. 

or 

Standing  two  hops  and  jump;  two  steps  and  jump;  hop,  step  and 

jump;  three  standing  broad  jumps. 
One  forw.  roll,  hands  on  mat;  same  with  hands  on  instep. 


Low  Horizontal  Bar:  (All  exercises  are  done  from  a  standing  start.) 

Free  front  rest.     Preparation  for  side  vault :  swing  legs  to  L.  &  R. 

Preparation  for  squat  vault  and  straddle  vault :  insteps  to  bar  inside 
and  outside  of  hands. 

Reverse  grasp :  circle  forw.  to  sitting  pos.  on  floor,  or  to  fall  hang- 
ing pos. ;  swing  up  to  st.  pos. 

Low  side  vault  L.  &  R.  touching  bar  with  foot  and  landing  with  90° 
turn. 

Short  underswing  from  L.  &  R.  foot. 


Lesson  8. 

I.  Marching,  as  before,  possibly  including  oblique  marching. 

II.  1.    Arm  flinging  forw.  and  sidew.  with  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 

2.  Stretch  stride  st.  backw.  arching  (C). 

3.  (1)  Arm  bending;  (2)  foot  placing  sidew.  with  downw.  bending, 

touching  floor  (straight  upper  back)  ;  (3)  trunk  raising  with 
arm  flinging  sidew.:    (4)   jump  to  fund.  pos. 

4.  Bend  oblique  charge  st.  trunk  twisting  to  same  side  (C). 

5.  Arm  circumduction  with  alternate  leg  raising  sidew.  (slow  move- 

ment, on  command;  or  quick  movement  repeated  rhythmic- 
ally). 

6.  Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  forw.  bending 

of  trunk. 

7.  Hip  grasp  toe  st.  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (Rh). 

8.  Mimetic  exercise :  shot  put. 

9.  Hip  grasp  side  lunge  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

10.  Jump  in  place  with  side  flinging  of  arms  and  180°  turn   (C). 

11.  Bend  st.  slow  arm  stretching  upw.  with  backw.  bending  of  head 

(C). 

III.  Horizontal  ladder: 

Short  jumps  backw.,  hands  outside,  straight  arms. 

Hand  traveling  backw.  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time,  without  swing. 

Hand  traveling  forw.  on  rungs,  skipping  one,  without  swing. 

Hand   traveling  sidew.,   hands   outside,   with    swing   from   shoulder 

and  alt.  arm  brnding. 

Rotary  traveling  backw.  on  rungs,  with  swing  and  turn. 
Hand  traveling  forw.  with  bent  arms,  hands  outside. 


190  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Hand  traveling  sidew.  on  rungs,  straight  arms. 

Standing  swing  jump. 

Standing  swing  jump,  catch  and  dismount. 

or 

High  horizontal  bar : 
Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backw.   swing  with  90°   turn 

L.  &  R. 

Hanging  pos.  with  reverse  grasp,  change  to  ordinary  grasp,  twice. 
Jump,  start   swing,  dismount  on  next   forw.   swing  with  90°   turn 

L.  &  R. 
Jump,  pass  feet  between  hands  to  inverted  hanging  pos.,  return  in 

reverse  order. 
Hanging  pos.   with   reverse   grasp,   start   swing,   dismount   on   first 

backw.  swing. 
Jump  to  bent  arm  pos.,  raise  legs  quickly,  hook  one  knee  over  bar 

and  swing  other  leg  backw. ;  dismount  on  next  backw.  swing.    Or 

mount. 

Jump  from  behind  or  directly  under  bar,  backw.  circle  to  front  rest. 
Swing  jump  for  height  and  distance,  running  start. 

IV.  Side  horse : 

Straddle  mount,  dismount  with  180°  turn  L.  &  R. 

1/2  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  L.  &  R.  over  ends  of  horse. 

Squat  vault  with  90°  turn. 

Low  side  vault  L.  &  R.  with  90°  turn  R.  &  L.  respectively. 

Mount  to  kneeling  pos.  spring  up  to  st.  pos.,  dismount  forw. 

Back  vault  L.  &  R.  over  ends. 

Face  vault  L.  &  R. 

Straddle  vault. 

or 

Running  high  jump  from  L.  &  R.  foot  with  180°  turn  to  side  of 
springing  foot  (leading  up  to  regular  competitive  style  of  run- 
ning high  jump). 

Running  oblique  jump  (springing  from  one  foot,  landing  on  the 
other). 

Standing  high  jump — forw.  and  sidew. 

Hurdle.     Pike  drive   (without  and  with  spring  board). 

V.  Run,  march ;  breathing  exercise. 


Lesson  12. 

I.  Marching,  as  before. 

II.  1.    Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew. 

and  heel  raising. 

2.  Side  lunge  with  hands  on  hips,  and  alternate  knee  bending. 

3.  Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  backw.  arching 

of  trunk. 

4.  Bend  stride  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with 

arm  stretching  upw.  with  (quick)  knee  bending. 

5.  Forw.  bending  of,  arms  with  alt.   foot  placing  obliquely  outw., 

and  trunk  twisting. 

6.  Hip  grasp  toe-support  charge  pos. 

7.  Alt.  leg  flinging  sidew.   with  opposite  arm  flinging  sidew.-upw. 

(Rh). 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  191 

8.  Prone   falling  foot  placing  forw.  and  backw.  once,  and  return 

(six  counts). 

9.  Mimetic  exercise:  discus  throw;  or  catching  wide  throw  to  first 

base. 

10.  Hip  grasp  st.  hop  twice  on  L.  foot  and  swing  R.  foot  backw.  and 

forw.,  then  change   (Rh). 

11.  Bend    st.    slow    arm    stretching    sidew.,    palms    up,   with    backw. 

bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  Suspended  parallel  bars  : 

Hand  traveling  backw.  (one  hand  on  each  bar)  with  bent  arms. 
Short  jumps  forw.  (one  hand  on  each  bar)  with  bent  arms. 
Rotary  traveling  backw.  (combined  grasp)  on  one  bar,  straight  arms. 
Hand  traveling  sidew.   (on  one  bar),  bent  arms. 
Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  backw.  swing;  hands  outside 

or  inside  bars.     (Try  mounting  to  upper  arm  hang.) 
Swing  jump,  catch   and   dismount  with  90°   turns. 
At  ends  of  bars :  jump,  pull  up,  raise  legs  to  inverted  hanging  pos. 

Return    in    reverse   order,   or   by   quick   backw.    l/z    circle    (body 

straight). 

or 

Ropes : 

Horizontal  climbing  from  rope  to  rope. 

Prone  hanging  pos.:  arm  bending;  change  to  fall  hanging  pos. 
Inverted  climbing  pos.  on  one  rope. 
Quick  backw.  circle  between  two  ropes. 
Running  swing  jump  on  one  rope. 

IV.  Buck: 

Straddle  vault  with  90°  or  180°  turns. 
Knee  vault.     Squat  vault. 

Low  side  vault  L.  &  R.  with  90°  turn  R.  &  L.  respectively. 
Y-2  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  L.  &  R.,  each  with  90°  turn  each  way. 
Jump  from  L.  &  R.  foot  to  standing  pos.  on  both  feet.     Rising  dis- 
mount, touching  toes  with  hands  before  landing. 
Back  vault  L.  &  R.,  without  and  with  90°  inside  turn. 
Straddle  vault  for  height. 

or 

Running  hop,  step;  step,  hop;  hop,  jump;  step,  jump;  hop,  step  and 

jump. 
Elementary  tumbling :  forw.  and  backw.  roll ;  head  stand  and  forw. 

roll;    hand    stand    (with    assistance);    cartwheel;    hand-and-head 

spring;   dive;   handspring. 

or 

Low  horizontal  bar : 

Free  front  rest  with  90°  turns  on  landing. 
Low  side  vault  L.  &  R. 

Front  rest,  dismount  backw.   (without  and  with  90°  turns). 
Squat  mount,  dismount   forw. 
Low  face  vault  L.  &  R.  (combined  grasp). 
Front  rest:  slow  forward  circle    (bending  at  hips)   to  fall  hanging 

nos.,  swing  up  to  st.  pos. 
Back  vault  L.  &  R. 


192  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Mount  to  back  rest,  turning  L.  &  R.,  dismount  forw.,  or  roll  over 

backw.  (backw.  circle)  to  standing  pos.  on  near  side. 
Backw.  circle  to  front  rest,  dismount  backw. 
Short  underswing,  from  both  feet,  without  and  with  a  jump. 

V.  Run,  march,  breathing  exercise. 

Series  5.     College  Women.    First  Year. 
Lesson  i. 

I.  Alignment   on   two   ranks.     Fundamental   standing  position.     Relaxed 

position.  Numbering.  Open  ranks  by  two  forward  and  back- 
ward steps,  each  step  separately  on  command ;  then  numbers  One 
one  step  forward,  numbers  Two  one  step  backward.  Facing  L. 
and  R.  in  two  movements,  each  on  separate  command. 

II.  1.    Arm  flinging  sidewards  with  heel  raising  (Rh). 

2.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  knee  bending  (C). 

3.  Backward  bending  at  head  (C). 

4.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  downward.     (On  command  a  few 

times,  then  repeated  in  even  rhythm.) 

5.  Stride  st.  stooping  with  trunk  twisting,  touching  floor  with  one 

hand    and    raising   other    arm.      (Rhythmic;    more   or    less 
indefinite.) 

6.  Cross  (a)  st.  arm  flinging  sideways  (C). 

7.  Hip  grasp  st.  knee  upward  bending  L.  and  R.  (Rh). 

8.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

9.  March  and  run  in  place. 

10.    Arm  raising  sideways  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  Flank  march.    Run.    Repeat  breathing  exercise. 

Lesson  4. 

I.  Front  and   rear  marching;   to  the  rear  march  and  halt  on  3  counts, 

stopping  on  first.  Open  order  by  forward  and  backward  steps, 
on  one  command.  Facings  on  2  counts,  complete  on  one  command. 

II.  1.    Arm  bending  with  alternate  foot  placing  forward. 

2.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  alternate  knee  bending   (2  counts  on  each 

side). 

3.  Cross  (a)  st.  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

4.  Bend  st.  stooping  "and  return. 

5.  Hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  sideways  L.  and  R.  (change  from  one 

side  to  the  other  without  stopping). 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways  and  downward    (uneven 

rhythm). 

7.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  (C)  . 

8.  Cross  (c)  l/2  st.  position  (leg  forward)   (C). 

9.  Bend  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk.     (C;  try  repeating  in  slow 

rhythm,  holding  each  position  an  instant.) 

10.  Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  forward-backw. 

(Rh). 

11.  Arm  rotation  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  Climbing  on  bar  stalls  or  window  ladders  (using  hands  and  feet). 

Grasp  (high)   J^  st.  arm  stretching  with  knee  bending. 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  193 

IV.  Running  high  jump  from  both  feet. 

Standing  hop;  st.  step  (leap)  ;  st.  broad  jump. 

V.  Run,  march;  breathing  exercise.    Or  folk  dance. 

Lesson  8. 

I.  Front,   rear   and   flank   marching   with    moderately   rapid   changes   of 

direction.    Halts  with  facings.    Open  order  by  forward  and  back- 
ward steps,  followed  by  facings,  on  one  command. 

II.  1.     Cross  (a)  st.  arm  flinging  sideways  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 

3.  Bend  walk   (b)   st.  slow  arm  stretching  upward  with  backward 

bending  of  head   (C). 

4.  Alternate   foot  placing  sideways  with  hands  on  neck,  and  for- 

ward-downward bending  of  trunk. 

5.  Bend   stride  st.  alternate  trunk  twisting  from  one  side  to  the 

other    in   one    movement,    alternating    with    arm    stretching 
sideways. 

6.  Hip  grasp  l/2.  hook  st.  change  feet  in  one  movement,  with  a  jump 

(C). 

7.  Forward  charge  with  hands  on  neck. 

8.  Cross  (c)  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

9.  Bend  st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upward. 

10.  Hip  grasp  st.  cut  step  (rocking  step)    (Rh). 

11.  Reach    st.   arm   parting,   palms   up,    with    backward   bending  of 

head  (C). 

III.  Suspension   exercises  on   boom,   horizontal   ladder,   window   ladders, 

rope  ladders,  traveling  rings,  vertical  and  inclined  ropes,  etc.* 

IV.  Running   and    standing   high   jump,    standing   broad   jumps,    running 

swing  jumps  with  ropes  or  rings;  vaulting  on  box,  buck,  horse, 
saddle  boom,  double  boom. 

V.  Run,  march ;  breathing  exercise. 

Lesson  12. 

I.  Marching,  as  before.     More  rapid  changes.     Change  from  double  to 

single  file. 

II.  1.    Arm  bending  with  alternate  foot  placing  obliquely  outward,  and 

heel  raising. 

2.  Cross   (a)    st.  arm  flinging  sideways  with  knee  bending   (heels 

off). 

3.  Neck  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  backward  arching  of  trunk  (C). 

4.  Bend  stride  st.  forward-downward  bending  of  trunk,  alternating 

with  arm  stretching  diagonally  upward. 

5.  Hip  grasp  st.  alternate  leg  flinging  sideways  (Rh). 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching,  one  forward,  the  other  sideways. 

7.  Hip  grasp  ^  st.  (leg  forward)  knee  bending  (C). 

8.  Neck  grasp  oblique  charge  st.  trunk  twisting  to  same  side  (C). 

9.  Prone  falling  position  and  return. 

10.  Jump  forward  with  3  (running)  start  steps. 

11.  Arm  circumduction  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

*  The  apparatus  work  is  similar  to  that  piven  to  high  school  pirls.     The  progression 
is,  if  anything,  slower,  unless  careful  grading  in  squads  of  varying  ability  is  feasible. 


194  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

III.  and  IV.  Apparatus  work. 

V.  Run,  toe  march,  breathing  exercise;  or  simple  dance. 

Series  6.    College  Women.    Second  Year. 

Lesson  I. 

I.  Front  and  rear  marching.    Open  order  by  forward  and  backward  steps. 

II.  1.    Arm  flinging  sideways  with  alternate  foot  placing  forward. 

2.  Stride  st.  arm  bending  with  knee  bending. 

3.  Neck   grasp   stride    st.   backward    bending   of   head   with    chest 

expansion  (C). 

4.  Hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  forward  L.  and  R.  (Rh). 

5.  Bend  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  (C). 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways  and  downward. 

7.  Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  toe  st.  head  twisting  (C). 

8.  Bend   st.   stooping,   alternating   with   arm   stretching   downward 

(Rh). 

9.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

10.  Jump  on  toes  with  arm  flinging  and  foot  placing  sideways  (Rh). 

11.  Arm  rotation  with  backward  bending  of  head. 

III.  High    boom :    mount    to    hanging   position    and    dismount.      Hanging 

alternate  knee  upward  bending,  or 

Low  boom :  fall  hanging  position  and  return.    Fall  hanging  alter- 
nate leg  raising,  or 

Window  ladder  :  oblique  climbing. 

IV.  Running  high  jump  from  L.  and  R.  foot  and  from  both  feet,  or 

Standing  hop;  st.  step  (leap)  ;  standing  broad  jump. 

V.  Short  run,  march  and  breathing  exercise. 

Lesson  4. 

I.  Front,  flank  and  rear  marching;  L.  by  file,  R.  by  twos  march. 

II.  1.     Arm  bending  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Alternate  side  lunge  with  hands  on  hips. 

3.  Arm  circumduction  with  backward  bending  of  head  (slow  move- 

ment on  command,  or  quick  rhythmic  repetition). 

4.  Alternate   foot  placing  sideways  with  hands  on  hips,  and   for- 

ward-downward bending  of  trunk. 

5.  Neck  grasp  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching,  one  sideways,  the  other  downward. 

7.  Cross  (d)  y2  st.  (leg  forward)  arm  raising  (C). 

8.  Arm   bending  with   alternate    foot   placing    forward,   and    trunk 

twisting. 

9.  Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck. 

10.  Jump  in  place  with  sideways  flinging  of  arms  and  90°  turn  (C). 

11.  Reach    st.    arm   parting,   palms   up,   with    backward   bending   of 

head  (C). 

III.  and  IV.  Suspension  apparatus  exercises.    Jumping  and  vaulting  similar 

to  the  apparatus  work  given  for  second  year  high  school  girls. 

V.  Run,  march,  breathing  exercise;  or  dance. 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  195 

Lesson  8. 

I.  Marching  with  doubling,  starting  from  one  rank.     Open  order  by  side 

steps. 

II.  1.     Reach  st.  arm  flinging  sideways  (palms  down)  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Alternate   foot  placing  obliquely   outward   with   hands   on   hips, 

and  knee  bending. 

3.  Cross  (e)  st.  backward  arching  of  trunk  (C). 

4.  Pend  stride  st.  downward  bending,  touching  floor  (straight  upper 

back),  alternating  with  arm  stretching  sideways. 

5.  Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck,  and  trunk  twisting  to  oppo- 

site side  (C). 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  backward,  forward  and  upward. 

7.  Hip  grasp  y2  st.  (leg  forward)  change  feet  on  one  count,  with 

a  jump  (C). 

8.  Forward  bending  of  arms  with  alternate  foot  placing  sideways, 

and  side  bending  of  trunk. 

9.  Hip  grasp  toe-support  charge  position. 

10.  Jump  on  toes  with  arm  flinging  and  foot  placing  sideways  and 

with  crossing  of  hands  and  feet  on  return. 

11.  Cross  (d)  st.  arm  raising  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  and  IV.  Suspension  exercises.    Jumping  and  vaulting. 
V.  Run,  etc. 

Lesson  12. 

I.  Marching:  fours  R.  and  L.,  starting  from  one  rank. 

II.  1.    Forward  bending  and  side  flinging  of  arms  with  alternate  foot 

placing  forward  and  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  st.  heel  raising  and  deep  knee  bending. 

3.  Arm  circumduction  with  trunk  twisting  and  backward  bending 

of  head  (C). 

4.  (1)    Arm  bending;    (2)    foot  placing  sideways  with  downward 

bending,  touching  floor  (straight  upper  back)  ;  (3)  trunk 
raising  with  arm  bending;  (4)  jump  to  position  with  arm 
stretching  sideways.  Repetitions  start  from  the  cross  (c) 
st.  position. 

5.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  all  the  way  from  one  side  to 

the  other  in  one  (quick)  movement,  alternating  with  arm 
stretching  upward. 

6.  Bend  st.  oblique  charge  with  stretching  of  one  arm  upward,  the 

other  downward.    Return  by  follow  step ;  zigzag  advance. 

7.  Hip  grasp   ^   hook  st.  knee  stretching   forward    (C).     Or  the 

exercise  may  be  done  as  a  rhythmic  movement,  thus :  hip 
grasp  st.  alternate  knee  upward  bending  and  stretching  for- 
ward. Movements  quick,  rhythm  slow ;  stop  the  class  in  the 
Yz  hook  position  unexpectedly. 

8.  Cross  (e)  close  st.  forward  bending  of  trunk. 

9.  Side  lunge  with  hands  on  hips,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 

10.  Jump   on    toes   with    alternate    knee   upward   bending   and    arm 

flinging  sideways  (Rh). 

11.  Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upward  with  backward  bending  of  head 

(C). 

III.  and  IV.  Apparatus  work. 
V.  Run,  etc. 


196  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Series  7,     College  Men.    First  Year. 

The  following  is  a  sample  series  of  exercises  of  a  more  or  less  indefinite 
character  which  may  be  used  for  the  first  few  lessons,  if  the  conditions 
are  such  as  to  make  it  inadvisable  to  begin  at  once  with  the  more  definite 
style  of  work.  The  change  to  the  latter  may  then  be  gradual,  by  substi- 
tuting each  time  a  few  of  the  exercises  from  the  first  and  second  lessons 
of  the  definite  style.  All  the  exercises  in  this  preliminary  series  (except 
the  breathing  exercise)  are  started  and  repeated  rhythmically. 

1.  Flexion  and  extension  of  fingers  and  wrists,  in  the  various  arm 

positions,  ten  counts  in  each  position. 

2.  Hip  grasp  st.  alternate  heel  and  toe  raising. 

3.  Hand  clapping  overhead  with  knee  bending  (heels  off). 

4.  Arm  flinging  forward,  sideways  and  downward  with  backward 

bending  of  head. 

5.  Bend  stride  st.  stooping  with  trunk  twisting,  touching  floor  with 

one  hand  while  the  other  arm  is  stretched  vertically  upward. 

6.  Knee-upward  bending  L.  and  R.,  grasping  knee  and  pulling  it 

toward  chest  (keeping  head  high  and  trunk  erect). 

7.  Stride  st.  alternate  side  bending  of  trunk  with  swinging  of  the 

arm  on  the  opposite  side  up  overhead. 

8.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  upward,  sideways  and  downward  in 

fairly  quick,  even  rhythm. 

9.  Bend  stride  st.  "chopping"  movement. 

10.  Arm  circumduction  with  alternate  toe-touch  sideways  with  bend- 

ing of  knee  of  supporting  leg. 

11.  Bend   stride   st.   downward   bending  touching  floor,   alternating 

with  arm  stretching  sideways. 

12.  Hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  sideways  L.  and  R. 

13.  Prone  falling  position  and  return. 

14.  Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  in  various  ways.    Run  in  place. 

15.  Arm  raising  sideways  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 


Lesson  I. 

I.  Formation  and  alignment  on  two  ranks.     Numbering.     Open  order  by 

forward  and  backward  steps.    Facing  on  two  counts,  stopping  on 
first. 

II.  1.    Arm  flinging  sideways  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  knee  bending. 

3.  Arm  circumduction  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

4.  Hip  grasp  st.  knee-upward  bending  L.  and  R. 

5.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  downward   (first  on  command  and 

then  repeated  in  even,  slow  rhythm;  quick  movements). 

6.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

7.  Arm    flinging   sideways   with    alternate   toe-touch    forward    and 

bending  of  knee  of  supporting  leg  (Rh). 

8.  Hip  grasp  st.  forward  bending  of  trunk  (C). 

9.  Bend   st.   arm   stretching  sideways   with   alternate   foot   placing 

sideways,  or  forward. 

10.  Bend  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  (C). 

11.  Jump  in  place  with  side-flinging  of  arms  (C). 

12.  Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  (Rh). 

13.  Arm  rotation  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  197 

III.  Elementary  exercises  on  horizontal  ladder,  suspended  parallel  bars, 

high  and  low  horizontal  bar  and  vertical  ropes.* 

IV.  Elementary  exercises  on  buck,  horse  and  parallel  bars ;  running  and 

standing  high  jumps;  hop,  step  and  jump,  standing  broad  jumps 
and  elementary  tumbling. 

V.  Short  run. 

Lesson  4. 

I.  Alignment.     Open  order  by  forward  and  backward  steps.     Facings  on 

one  count. 

II.  1.     Head  bending  sideways;  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

2.  Alternate   foot  placing   forward  with  hands  on  hips,  and  heel 

raising. 

3.  Cross  (a)  stride  st.  arm  flinging  sideways  with  knee  bending. 

4.  Alternate  foot  placing  sideways  with  hands  on  neck,  and  back- 

ward arching  of  trunk. 

5.  Bend   st.    (slow)    forward   bending   of   trunk,   alternating  with 

(quick)  arm  stretching  upward. 

6.  Hip  grasp  st.  alternate  leg  flinging  sideways. 

7.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  backward  and  sideways. 

8.  Hip  grasp  walk  (a)  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 

9.  Alternate  foot  placing  forward  with  hands  on  neck,  and  trunk 

twisting. 

10.  Reach    st.    arm    flinging    sideways    with    alternate    toe-touching 

forward. 

11.  Bend    stride    st.    side   bending   of    trunk,    alternating    with    arm 

stretching  diagonally  upward   (with  heel  raising). 

12.  Arm    flinging    sideways    with    alternate    foot    placing    sideways 

(wide  step),  then  downward  bending  of  trunk,  touching  floor 
(upper  back  straight). 

13.  Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  hips. 

14.  Prone  falling  position. 

15.  Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  forward  and  back- 

ward, passing  through  toe  st.  position  each  time  (Rh). 

16.  Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upward  with  backward  bending  of  head 

(Q. 

III.  Suspension  apparatus  exercises. 

IV.  Jumping  or  vaulting. 

V.  Run. 

Lesson  8. 

I.  Alignment   and    open    order   by    side    steps.     Marching    forward   and 
backward. 


*  As  a  considerable  proportion  of  college  students  have  not  had  previous  training, 
the  apparatus  work  will  be  similar  to  that  given  to  high  school  boys.  With  proper 
grading  of  squads  and  well-trained  leaders,  however,  the  progression  will  be  more 
rapid.  During  the  freshman  year  the  squads  of  average  ability  might  progress  as 
far  as  second  year  high  school  boys,  the  squads  of  greater  ability  somewhat  beyond 
this  point.  In  the  sophomore  year  the  apparatus  work  covered  in  the  second  half 
of  the  freshman  year  should  be  reviewed,  at  least  the  more  representative  exercises. 
The  progression  is  then  carried  as  far  as  possible. 

For  progressive  lists  of  apparatus  exercises  see  appendix. 


198  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

II.  1.    Reach  st.  arm  flinging  sideways  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  alternate  knee  bending  (one  count  on  each 

side). 

3.  Bend  st.  backward  arching  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm  stretch- 

ing upward. 

4.  Hip  grasp  toe  st.  alternate  knee  upward  bending  (Rh). 

5.  Cross  (a)  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  from  one  side  to  the  other  in 

one  movement,  alternating  with  arm  flinging  sideways. 

6.  Neck  grasp  toe-support  charge  position. 

7.  Arm  bending  and  stretching,  one  upward  and  the  other  forward. 

8.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  side-and-knee  bending. 

9.  (1)    Arm  bending;    (2)    foot  placing  sideways   with   downward 

bending,  touching  floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arm  flinging 
forward-sideways;  (4)  jumo  to  fund,  position. 

10.  Oblique    charge    with    hands    on    neck,    and    trunk    twisting    to 

opposite  side. 

11.  Arm  circumduction  (quick)  with  alternate  toe-touch  sideways. 

12.  Hip  grasp  st.  alternate  leg  flinging  forward-sideways   (leg  cir- 

cumduction)    (Rh). 

13.  Prone    falling   position,   arm   bending   once,    and    return   to    st. 

position  (six  counts). 

14.  Hip  grasp  st.  hop  twice  on  one  foot  and  swing  the  other  back- 

ward and  forward,  then  change. 

15.  Bend  st.  slow  arm  stretching  sideways,  palms  up,  with  backward 

bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  Suspension  apparatus  work. 

IV.  Jumping,  vaulting  or  tumbling. 

V.  Run. 

Lesson  12. 

I.  Front  and  rear  marching.    Open  order  as  before. 

II.  1.    Arm  bending  and  stretching  upward  with  alternate  foot  placing 

sideways  and  heel  raising. 

2.  Hip  grasp  st.  heel  raising  and  deep  knee  bending. 

3.  Alternate  foot  placing  forward  with  hands  on  neck,  and  back- 

ward arching  of  trunk. 

4.  Stretch   stride   st.   forward-downward   bending  of   trunk,   alter- 

nating with  arm  parting  witfi  knee  bending. 

5.  Arm   bending   with   alternate    foot   placing   outward,   then   arm 

stretching  sideways  with  trunk  twisting  (to  the  same  side 
as  foot  placing). 

6.  Hip    grasp    st.   alternate   knee-upward    bending    and    stretching 

forward  (slow  rhythm,  quick  movements.  Stop  unexpectedly 
in  any  position). 

7.  Alternate  leg  flinging  sideways  with  opposite  arm  flinging  side- 

ways-upwards. 

8.  Arm    bending    with    alternate    foot    placing    sideways,    (slow) 

forward  bending  of  trunk,  then  (quick)  arm  stretching 
diagonally  upward.  Return  in  reverse  order  (six  counts). 

9.  Arm   flinging  sideways   with   side   lunge,   then   side   bending  of 

trunk,  touching  floor  with  one  hand,  the  other  arm  vertical. 

10.  (1)    Arm   bending;    (2)    foot  placing  sideways  with   downward 

bending,  touching  floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arm  flinging 
forward-upward ;  (4)  jump  to  fund,  position  with  arm 
flinging  sideways-downward. 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  199 

11.  y2  hip  grasp  side  falling  position.    Try  leg  raising. 

12.  Arm  flinging  sideways-upward  with"  alternate  leg  flinging  forward 

(Rh). 

13.  Forward  charge  with  hands  on  neck,  and   forward  bending  of 

trunk. 

14.  Hip  grasp  Y*  st.    (foot  behind)    hop  and  "kick"   sideways  with 

turn,  then  change  feet  and  repeat  (Rh). 

15.  Bend  st.  slow  arm  stretching  upward  with  backward  bending  of 

head   (C). 

III.  Suspension  apparatus  work. 

IV.  Jumping,  vaulting  or  tumbling. 

V.  Run. 

Series  8.    College  Men.    Second  Year. 
Lesson  i. 

I.  Formation  on  two  ranks;  open  order  by  forward  and  backward  steps. 

Marching  forward. 

II.  1.    Arm  bending  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Alternate  foot  placing  sideways  with  hands  on  hips,  and  knee 

bending. 

3.  Arm   circumduction    (quick),    on   three   counts,    with    backward 

bending  of  head. 

4.  Bend  stride  st.  forward-downward  bending  of  trunk,  alternating 

with  arm  stretching  sideways. 

5.  Neck  grasp  stride  st.  alternate  trunk  twisting. 

6.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  sideways  and  downward. 

7.  Hip  grasp  st.  knee-upward  bending  L.  and  R. 

8.  Arm  flinging  forward-upward  with  alternate  toe-touch  sideways. 

9.  Hip  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 

10.  Bend  st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upward. 

11.  Hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  diagonally  forward  L.  and  R. 

12.  Prone  falling  position  and  return. 

13.  Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes — quick  and  slow  rhythm  (Rh). 

14.  Arm  raising  sideways  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  Suspension  apparatus  exercises. 

IV.  Jumping  or  vaulting. 

V.  Run. 

Lesson  4. 

I.  Front,  flank  and  rear  marching.    Open  order  by  side  steps. 

II.  1.     Flexion  and  extension  of  fingers  and  wrists  in  all  positions,  ten 

counts  in  each. 

2.  Hip  grasp  st.  alternate  heel-and-toe  raising. 

3.  Arm  flinging  forward  and  sideways  with  alternate  foot  placing 

sideways  and  knee  bending. 

4.  Alternate  foot  placing  forward  with  hands  on  neck,  and  back- 

ward arching  of  trunk. 

5.  Bending  stride  st.   forward-downward  bending  of  trunk,  alter- 

nating with  arm  stretching  upward. 


200  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

6.  Close  st.  arm  flinging  forward  with  knee  bending  (knees  together, 

heels  off). 

7.  y*   hip  grasp   st.   leg   flinging  sideways   L.   and   R.   with   oppo- 

side  arm  flinging  sideways-upward. 

8.  l/2    sideways    bending    of    arms    with    alternate    foot    placing 

sideways,  and  forward  bending  of  trunk. 

9.  Arm  bending  with  oblique  charge,  and  trunk  twisting  to  opposite 

side. 

10.  Forward  bending  and  side  flinging  of  arms  with  alternate  knee 

upward  bending  and  stretching  forward. 

11.  Alternate   foot  placing   forward  with  hands  on  neck,   and  side 

bending  of  trunk. 

12.  Hip  grasp  toe-support  charge  position. 

13.  Arm  bending  and  stretching,  one  backward,  the  other  sideways; 

both  upward,  sideways  and  downward,  with  heel  raising  on 
even  count. 

14.  l/t   hip   grasp   side    falling   position,    about    facing,    and    return 

to  fund.  st.  position  (eight  count  movement). 

15.  Jump  on  toes  with  arm  flinging  and  alternate  leg  flinging  side- 

ways, crossing  hands  and  feet  at  each  jump  (Rh). 

16.  Cross  (d)  st.  arm  raising  with  backward  bending  of  head  (C). 

III.  and  IV.  Apparatus  work. 
V.  Run. 

Lesson  8. 
(Dumb-bells.) 

I.  Marching:   fours  R.   and   L.   from  single  rank   formation.     Finish  by 

marching  around  room,  single  file,  taking  dumb-bells,  then,  when 
marching  around  one  end  of  room,  forming  open  column  of 
fours,  halting  in  formation  properly  spaced  for  the  exercises. 

II.  1.     Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upward  with  heel  raising. 

2.  Arm  flinging  sideways  with  alternate  foot  placing  forward,  then 

slow  arm  rotation  with  backward  bending  of  head. 

3.  Bend  st.  stooping  (strike  floor),  alternating  with  arm  stretching 

sideways. 

4.  Alternate  leg  flinging  sideways  with  opposite  arm  flinging  side- 

ways-upward. 

5.  Arm  bending  with  alternate  foot  placing  obliquely  outward,  then 

arm  stretching  forward  with  trunk  twisting  (to  same  side  as 
foot  placing). 

6.  (1)    Arm  bending;    (2)    foot  placing  sideways   with   downward 

bending,  striking  floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arm  bending; 
(4)  jump  to  position  with  arm  stretching  upward.  Repeti- 
tions start  from  stretch  st.  position. 

7.  Arm   flinging  sideways   with    side   lunge,   then    side   bending  of 

trunk,  striking  floor  (other  arm  vertically  overhead). 

8.  Bend    st.    alternate    leg    flinging    forward     (or    alternate    knee 

upward  bending)  with  striking  of  bells  behind  knee  of 
moving  leg.  Uneven  rhythm. 

9.  Bend  st.  oblique  charge  with  twisting  of  trunk  to  opposite  side 

and  of  head  to  same  side  (as  charge),  and  with  stretching 
of  arm  on  same  side  upward,  the  other  downward. 


PROGRESSION  OF  GYMNASTIC  LESSONS  201 

10.  Prone  falling  position :  foot  placing  forward  and  backward  once, 

then  arm  bending  once  and  return  to  fund.  st.  position 
(eight  counts). 

11.  Jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  sideways  and  arm  flinging  side- 

ways-upward, striking  overhead  and  behind  back. 

12.  Arm  circumduction  with  backward  bending  of  head. 

III.  and  IV.  Apparatus  work. 
V.  Run. 

Lesson  12. 

(Bar  bells.) 

I.  Marching  and  open  order  as  before. 

II.  1.     Arm  bending  and  stretching  upward  with  heel  raising  and  knee 

bending. 

2.  Arm  circumduction  (to  position  with  bar  behind  back)  with  back- 

ward bending  of  head  and  simultaneous  alternate  foot 
placing  forward. 

3.  Bend  stride  st.  (bar  behind  neck)  forward-downward  bending  of 

trunk,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upward. 

4.  Arm    flinging   sideways-upward    (one   arm    overhead,   the   other 

with  forearm  across  chest  and  hand  in  arm-pit)  with 
opposite  leg  flinging  sideways. 

5.  Arm    flinging    upward-sideways    (to    position    with    bar    behind 

shoulders)  with  alternate  foot  placing  obliquely  outward, 
then  trunk  twisting  (to  same  side  as  foot  placing). 

6.  Arm    flinging   sideways    (one    arm    in   cross    (c),    the   other   in 

cross  (a)  position,  bar  bell  resting  on  elbow  and  forearm  of 
bent  arm)  with  alternate  toe-touch  sideways  on  opposite 
side,  knee  bending  on  same  side  (trunk  erect  and  vertical). 

7.  Cross  (c)  st.  (bar  behind  shoulders)  alternate  leg  flinging  for- 

ward (or  arm  flinging  forward-upward  with  alternate  leg 
flinging  forward). 

8.  Arm  flinging  sideways  with  opposite  foot  placing  sideways,  then 

side  bending  of  trunk  (to  same  side  as  foot  placing). 

9.  Arm  circumduction  with  toe-support  charge. 

10.  Arm  bending  and  stretching  upward  with  alternate  knee  upward 

bending  and  stretching  forward. 

11.  Side  lunge   with   opposite   arm   flinging   sideways-upward,   then 

side  bending  of  trunk  (to  same  side  as  lunge). 

12.  (1)    Arm  bending;    (2)    foot  placing  sideways  with   downward 

bending  striking  floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arms  over- 
head ;  (4)  jump  to  fund,  position. 

13.  Oblique  charge  with  arm  on  same  side  overhead,  bar  in   front 

or  behind. 

14.  Jump  on  toes  with  alternate  leg  flinging  sideways  and  opposite 

arm  flinging  sideways  (or  sideways-upward). 

15.  Arm  raising  forward-upward  with  backward  bending  of  head. 

III.  and  IV.  Apparatus  work. 
V.  Run. 


V.    APPENDIX. 

The  following  lists  of  free-standing  and  apparatus  exercises 
are  arranged  in  approximately  progressive  order.  They  include 
the  more  common  and  representative  types  and  combinations,  but 
are  not  in  any  sense  exhaustive. 

1.     FREE-STANDING  EXERCISES. 
Foot  Platings;  Heel  Raising ;  Toe  Raising;  Closing  of  Feet. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with   (placing  of)   hands  on  hips. 

Hip  grasp  stride  st.  heel  raising. 

Hip  grasp  st.  alt.  toe  raising. 

Alt.  foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  hips. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  hips. 

Hip  grasp  st.  heel  raising. 

Hip  grasp  st.  close  and  open  feet. 

Hip  grasp  stride  st.  alt.  heel  raising  (2  or  1  count  each  side). 

Arm  raising  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck. 

Arm  bending  with  heel  raising. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  heel  raising. 

Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw. 

Hip  grasp  close  st.  heel  raising. 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew. 

Neck  grasp  st.  alt.  toe  raising. 

Alt.  foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  heel  raising. 

Neck  grasp  stride  st.  alt.  heel  raising  (1  count  each  side). 

Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  heel  raising. 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  heel  raising. 

Arm  raising  forw.  with  heel  raising. 

Hip  grasp  st.  alt.  heel-and-toe  raising. 

Alt.  foot  placing  backw.-outw.  with  hands  on  hips. 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  heel  raising. 

Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw. 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  downw.  with  heel  raising. 

Alt.  foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  heel  raising. 

Arm  flinging  forw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew. 

Closing  of  feet  with  hands  on  hips,  and  heel  raising. 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  heel  raising. 

Reach  stride  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 

Walk  (b)  st.  arm  raising  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 

Cross  (a)  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 

y2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  heel  raising. 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with  heel  raising. 

Neck  grasp  st.  alt.  heel-and-toe  raising. 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  heel 

raising. 
y2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  heel  raising. 


204  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Cross  (d)  st.  ami  raising  (or  flinging  upw.)  with  heel  raising. 

Closing  of  feet  with  hands  on  neck,  and  heel  raising. 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  and  arm  flinging  sidew.  with   alt.   foot  placing 

sidew.  and  heel  raising. 

Reach  st.  arm  flinging  upw.  with  heel  raising. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  and  arm  rot.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  heel 

raising. 

Cross  (e)  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 
Arm  flinging   forw.   and   sidew.   with   alt.   foot  placing  sidew.   and  heel 

raising. 

Cross  (a)  walk  (b)  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  forw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  heel 

raising. 

Cross  (e)  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with  heel  raising. 

Arm  raising  sidew.  and  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  heel  raising. 
Bend  walk  (b)  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 
Forw.  bending  and  side  flinging  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and 

heel  raising. 
%    sidew.    bending   of   arms   and   arm   stretching   sidew.    with   alt.    foot 

placing  sidew.  and  heel  raising. 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.  with  closing  of  feet  and  heel  raising. 
Arm   circumduction    (4  counts)    with   alt.   foot   placing  sidew.   and   heel 

raising. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  heel 

raising. 

Cross  (d)  walk  (b)  st.  arm  flinging  upw.  with  heel  raising. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  heel 

raising. 
]/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  and  arm  stretching  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing 

sidew.  and  heel  raising. 

Arm  flinging  forw.  and  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  heel  raising. 
Bend   st.   arm   stretching   forw.   and   arm   flinging  sidew.   with   alt.    foot 

placing  sidew.  and  heel  raising. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  with  alt.   foot  placing  forw.  and  heel 

raising. 
Forw.  bending  and  side  flinging  of  arms,  with  closing  of  feet  and  heel 

raising. 
Yi  sidew.  bending  of  arms  and  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing 

forw.  and  heel  raising. 
Reach  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  and  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and 

heel  raising. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  and  arm  parting  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew. 

and  heel  raising. 

Arm  flinging  sidew.  and  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  heel  raising. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  with  closing  of  feet  and  heel  raising. 
Cross  (a)   st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  and  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew. 

and  heel  raising. 

Arm  raising  sidew.  and  upw.  with  closing  of  feet  and  heel  raising. 
l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  and  arm  stretching  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing 

forw.  and  heel  raising. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  and  arm  rotation  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  heel 

raising. 
Arm   circumduction    (4  counts)    with   alt.    foot   placing   forw.    and   heel 

raising. 
l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  and  arm  rotation  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew. 

and  heel  raising.  . 


APPENDIX  205 

Arm  flinging  forw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  (and  return),  alternating 

with  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  heel  raising. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.   (sidew.,  or  outw.),  alternating 

with  arm  flinging  sidew.  (or  forw.)  with  heel  raising. 
Arm   flinging  sidew.  with   alt.   foot  placing   forw.,   alternating  with  arm 

flinging  forw.  (or  arm  b'd'g)  with  heel  raising. 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  (or  forw.),  alternating 

with  arm  flinging  forw.  (or  sidew.)  with  heel  raising. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.    (upw.,  or  forw.)    with  alt.   foot  placing 

forw.  (outw.  or  sidew.),  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upw.  (sidew. 

or  forw.)  with  heel  raising. 

Knee  Bending  and  Alternate  Knee  Bending ;  Foot  Placings;  Side 
Lunge;  Arm  Movements  and  Combinations. 

Hip  grasp  stride  st.  knee  bending. 

Stride  st.  arm  raising  sidew.  with  knee  bending  (slow  or  quick). 

Neck  grasp  stride  st.  knee  bending. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  knee  bending. 

Hip   grasp    st.   knee    bending    with    simultaneous    heel    raising    (2    count 

movement). 

Stride  st.  arm  bending  with  (quick)  knee  bending. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  knee  bending. 
Hip  grasp  stride  st.  alt.  knee  bending  (2  counts  each  side). 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  knee  bending. 
Arm  flinging  forw.   (or  sidew.)   with   (quick)  knee'  bending,  heels  off   (2 

count  movement). 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  knee  bending. 
Hip  grasp  stride  st.  alt.  knee  bending  from  one  side  to  the  other  in  one 

movement. 

Bend  stride  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  (quick)  knee  bending. 
Hip  grasp  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending  (4  count  movement). 
Cross  (a)  stride  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  (quick)  knee  bending. 
Alt.  foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  knee  bending. 
Reach  stride  st.  arm  parting  with  knee  bending  (slow  or  quick). 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  knee 

bending. 

Bend  stride  st.  arm  stretching  forw.  with  (quick)  knee  bending. 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  alt.  knee  bending   (from  one  side  to  the  other  in 

one  movement). 

Cross  (d)  stride  st.  arm  raising  with  knee  bending  (slow  or  quick). 
Alt.  side  lunge  with  hands  on  hips. 

Hip  grasp  stride  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending  (4  count  movement). 
Forw.  bending  and  side-flinging  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and 

knee  bending. 

Toe  st.  arm  raising  sidew.  with  knee  bending. 
Reach  stride  st.  arm  raising  with  knee  bending  (slow  or  quick). 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  side  lunge. 

Close  st.  arm  flinging  forw.  with  knee  bending,  heels  off  (knees  together). 
Alt.  foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  knee  bending. 
Alt.  side  lunge  with  hands  on  neck. 

Bend  stride  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with  (quick)  knee  bending. 
Neck  grasp  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending  (4  count  movement). 
l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  knee  bending. 


206  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Stretch  stride  st.  arm  parting  with  knee  bending  (slow). 

Hip  grasp  st.  heel  raising  and  deep  knee  bending  (4  count  movement). 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  forw.  with  closing  of  feet  and  knee  bending 

(heels  off,  knees  together). 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  side  lunge. 

Cross  (e)  stride  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.   (or  upw.)   with  knee  bending. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.-upw.  with  knee  bending,  heels  off. 
Bend  toe  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  (quick)  knee  bending. 
Arm   flinging   forw.  and   sidew.   with   alt.    foot  placing   sidew.   and   knee 

bending. 

Hip  grasp  walk  (a)  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending  (4  count  movement). 
Alt.  side  lunge  with  hands  on  hips,  and  alt.  knee  bending. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  knee 

bending. 

Hip  grasp  st.  deep  knee  bending,  heels  off  (2  count  movement). 
Arm    raising   sidew.    and    upw.   with    alt.    foot    placing   sidew.    and   knee 

bending. 

Neck  grasp  st.  heel  raising  and  deep  knee  bending  (4  count  movement). 
Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending  (4  count  movement). 
Alt.  side  lunge  with  hands  on  neck,  and  alt.  knee  bending. 
Arm  circumduction  (4  counts)  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and   (quick) 

knee  bending. 

Cross  (a)  toe  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  (quick)  knee  bending. 
Alt.  foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  hips,  heel  raising  and  knee  bending 

(6  count  movement). 
J/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  and  arm  stretching  sidew.   (or  upw.)  with  alt. 

foot  placing  sidew.  and  knee  bending. 

Reach  (stride)  toe  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  knee  bending. 
Close  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  knee  bending,  heels  off  (knees  together). 
Bend  toe  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with  knee  bending. 
Stretch  st.  arm  parting  with  knee  bending,  heels  off. 
Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  hips,  heel  raising  and  knee  bending 

(6  count  movement). 

Cross  (d)  toe  st.  arm  raising  (slow  or  quick)  with  knee  bending. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.,  palms  up,  with  alt.  side  lunge,  and  arm  raising. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  forw.  and  arm  parting  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew. 

and  knee  bending. 
Arm   flinging  sidew.-upw.   with    deep   knee   bending,   heels   off    (2   count 

movement). 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.  with  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 
Alt.  foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  neck,  heel  raising  and  knee  bending 

(6  counts). 

Arm  flinging  forw.  and  sidew.  with  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.   (palms  up)   with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew., 

then  arm  raising  with  knee  bending. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.  with  closing  of  feet  and  knee  bending 

(heels  off,  knees  together). 
Forw.   bending   and   side   flinging   of   arms   with   heel    raising   and   knee 

bending. 
Arm  flinging  forw.  with  alt.  side  lunge,  then  arm  parting  with  alt.  knee 

bending. 
Bend  .st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  then  arm  parting 

with  knee  bending. 

Arm  raising  sidew.-upw.  with  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 
Bend  stride  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.,  palms  up,  with  heel  raising,  then  arm 

raising  with  knee  bending. 


APPENDIX  207 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  with  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 

Reach  toe  st.  arm  parting  with  deep  knee  bending. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  neck,  heel  raising  and  knee  bending 

(6  counts). 

Arm  circumductibn  (4  counts)  with  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 
Cross  (d)  toe  st.  arm  raising  with  deep  knee  bending. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  forw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  heel 
raising,  then  arm  parting  (quick  or  slow)  with  knee  bending  (6  count 

movement). 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  and  arm  parting  with  heel  raising  and  knee 

bending. 
Arm  flinging  forw. -upw.  with  alt.  side  lunge,  thenfarm  parting  with  alt. 

knee  bending. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  with  closing  of  feet  and  knee  bending 

(heels  off). 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  heel 

raising,  then  arm  parting  with  knee  bending  (6  count  movement). 
Arm   flinging    forw.-upw.   and   arm   parting   with   heel    raising   and   knee 

bending. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.  (palms  up)  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw. 

and    heel    raising,    then    arm    raising    with    knee    bending    (6    count 

movement). 
Alt.  side  lunge  with  arm  flinging  upw.  on  same  side,  sidew.  (palm  up)  on 

opposite  side,  then  alt.  knee  bending  with  change  of  arms. 


Backward  Moving  of  Head  and  Arching  of  Trunk;  Foot  Plac- 
ings;  Toe  Touches  and  Arm  Movements. 

Backward  bending  of  head  with  chest  expansion. 

Arm  raising  sidew.  with  backw.  bending  of  head. 

Bend  st.  (slow)  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  backw.  bending  of  head. 

Hip  grasp  stride  st.  backw.  bending  of  head  with  chest  expansion    (== 

backward  arching). 
Arm  raising  sidew.,  palms  up,  with  backw.  bending  of  head    (slow,  on 

command;  or  quick,  rhythmic  movement). 
Bend  stride  st.  backw.  bending  of  head  with  chest  expansion   (=  backw. 

arching). 
Reach  st.    (slow)    arm  parting,  palms  up,  with  backw.  bending  of  head 

(on  command;  or  quick,  rhythmic  movement). 

Neck  grasp  stride  st.  backw.  bending  of  head  with  chest  expansion. 
Cross   (d)  st.  arm  raising  with  backw.  bending  of  head. 
Arm   flinging  forw.,   sidew.,   and   downw.  with  backw.  bending   of  head 

(quick  3  count  movement). 

Bend  st.  (slow)  arm  stretching  upw.  with  backw.  bending  of  head. 
Arm  circumduction    (2  counts,  second  slow)    with  backward  bending  of 

head. 

Bend  st.  backward  arching,  alternating  with  quick  arm  stretching  sidew. 
Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  backw.  arching. 
Arm  flinging  forw.-upw.,  sidew.  and  downw.  (=3  count  quick  arm  circum- 
duction) with  backw.  bending  of  head   (on  first  count,  held  through 

second). 
Bend  st.  (quick)  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  alt.  toe  touching  sidew.  and 

backw.  bending  of  head. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  backw.  arching. 


208  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Neck   grasp   stride   st.   backw.   arching,   alternating   with    arm    stretching 

sidew. 
Arm  circumduction  (quick,  2  count  movement)  with  alt.  toe  touch  sidew. 

and  backw.  bending  of  head. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  backw.  arching. 
Cross  (a)  stride  st.  backw.  arching,  alternating  with  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  backw.  arching. 
Cross    (c)   stride  st.  backw.  arching,  alternating  with  arm  bending  and 

stretching  sidew. 
Bend   st.    (quick)    arm   stretching  upw.   with   alt.   toe   touch   sidew.   and 

backw.  bending  of  head. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  slow  arm  stretching  upw. 

with  backw.  bending  of  head. 
Neck    grasp    stride    st.    backw.    arching    alternating    with    forw.-downw. 

bending  of  trunk. 
Reach    st.   arm   flinging   sidew.   with    alt.    toe   touch    sidew.    and   backw. 

bending  of  head. 

Neck  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  backw.  arching. 
Stretch  stride  st.  backw.  arching. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  backw.  arching. 
Cross  (e)  stride  st.  backw.  arching. 

Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  and  backw.  arching. 
Twist  st.  arm  circumduction  (2  counts)  with  backw.  bending  of  head. 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  backw.  arching,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upw. 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  backw.  arching. 
Arm  circumduction   (4  counts)   with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  backw. 

bending  of  head  (second  and  third  counts  slow,  first  and  fourth  quick). 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  toe  touch  forw.  and  backw.  bending  of  head. 
Bend  walk   (a)  twist  st.  backw.  arching. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  backw. 

arching. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  backward  arching. 
Cross  (e)  walk  (b)  st.  backw.  arching. 
Arm  circumduction    (2  counts)   with  trunk  twisting  and  backw.  bending 

of  head. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with   alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  backw. 

arching. 
Reach  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  toe  touch  forw.  and  backw.  bending 

of  head. 

Neck  grasp  walk  (a)  twist  st.  backw.  arching. 

*/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  backw.  arching. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  and  backw. 

arching. 
Stretch    stride    st.    backw.    arching,    alternating    with    arm    bending    and 

stretching  upw. 
Arm  circumduction    (2  counts)   with  alt.  toe  touching  forw.  and  backw. 

bending  of  head. 

Vz  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  backw.  arching. 
Arm   bending  with   alt.    foot   placing   outw.,   trunk   twisting,    and   backw. 

arching  (6  counts). 

Cross  (e)  stride  st.  backw.  arching,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upw. 
Stretch  walk  (b)  st.  backw.  arching. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with  alt.  toe  touching   forw.   and  backw. 

bending  of  head. 
Cross  (e)  walk  (a)  twist  st.  backw.  arching. 


APPENDIX  209 

Stretch  stride  st.  backw.  arching,  alternating  with  arm  parting  with  knee 

bending. 
Alt.   foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  neck,  trunk  twisting,  and  backw. 

arching  (6  counts). 
Arm  bending  with   alt.    foot  placing   forw.,   then   arm   stretching   sidew., 

palms  up,  with  backw.  bending  of  head. 
Cross   (d)  st.  arm  raising  with  backw.  arching. 
Alt.  foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  hips  and  with  simultaneous  trunk 

twisting,  then  backw.  arching  (4  count  movement). 
Arm    bending    with    alt.    foot    placing    fo*rw.,    arm    stretching    upw.    with 

backw.  bending  of  head. 
Stretch  stride  arch  st.  arm  parting. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting, 

then  backw.  arching. 
l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  then  arm  stretching 

upw.  with  backward  arching. 
Cross  (d)  walk  (b)  arch  st.  arm  raising. 
Alt.    foot    placing   outw.    with    hands    on    neck    and    simultaneous    trunk 

twisting,  then  backw.  arching. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with  alt.   foot  placing  forw.,  and  backw. 

arching. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.   (palms  up)  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  arm  raising 

with  backward  arching. 
Stretch  walk  (a)  twist  st.  backw.  arching. 
y2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.  and  simultaneous 

trunk  twisting,  then  backw.  arching. 
Arm  circumduction   (4  counts)    with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  backw. 

arching. 

Cross  (d)  walk  (a)  twist  st.  arm  raising  with  backw.  arching. 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.,  arm  flinging  sidew. 

with  trunk  twisting,  then  backw.  arching. 
l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  and   (slow)   arm 

stretching  upw.  with  backw.  arching. 

Cross  (a)  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.  and  simul- 
taneous  trunk   twisting,   then   backw.    arching   without   or   with    arm 

rotation. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.,  arm  stretching  upw.  with  trunk 

twisting,  then  backw.  arching  (6  qounts). 
Arm  bending  (or  l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms)  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw. 

and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting,  then  slow  arm  stretching  upw.  with 

backw.  arching. 

Compensatory   Forward  and   Forward-Downward  Bendings   of 

Trunk;   Downward  Bendings,    Touching  Floor;  Stooping; 

Combinations  and  Alternations  with  Arm  Movements 

and  Foot  Placings. 

Hip  grasp  stride  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Bend  st.  forward  bending  of  trunk. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  hips  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Hip  grasp  st.  stooping  (and  return  to  starting  pos.). 

Cross  (a)    (stride)  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Bend  st.  stooping. 


210  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Neck  grasp  (stride)  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Bend  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  sidew. 

Hip  grasp  stride  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Cross   (a)   st.  stooping. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Bend  stride  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  $t.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Bend  st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  sidew. 

Neck  grasp  stride  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Bend    stride    st.    forw.-down.    bending   of    trunk,    alternating    with    arm 

stretching  sidew. 
Neck  grasp  st.  stooping. 
Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  forw.-downw.  bending 

of  trunk. 
Bend  (wide)  stride  st.  (quick)  downw.  bending,  touching  floor  (knees  and 

upper  back  straight),  alternating  with  arm  stretching  downw. 
Hip  grasp  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Bend  st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  diagonally  upw. 
Neck  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Bend  (wide)  stride  st.  (quick)  downw.  bending,  touching  floor,  alternating 

with  arm  stretching  sidew. 

Hip  grasp  close  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Arm  bending   (or  forw.  bending  of  arms)   with  alt.   foot  placing  sidew. 

(wide  step),  and   (quick)    downw.  bending,  touching  floor.     Return 

in  reverse  order. 
Neck  grasp   stride  st.    forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with 

arm  stretching  sidew. 
(1)  Arm  bending  (or  forw.  bending  of  arms)  ;  (2)   (double)  foot  placing 

sidew.    with    (quick)    downw.    bending,    touching    floor;     (3)    trunk 

raising  with  arm  bending  (or  forw.  bending  of  arms)  ;    (4)  jump  to 

fund.  st.  pos. 

Bend  st.  stooping,  alternating  with  arm  stretching  upw. 
Neck  grasp  close  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Bend   stride   st.   downw.   bending,   touching  floor,   alternating   with   arm 

stretching  upw. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alternate  foot  placing  sidew.   (wide  step),  and 

(quick)   downw.  bending,  touching  floor.     Return  in  reverse  order. 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm 

stretching  upw. 
Cross  (a)   stride  st.   (quick)  downward  bending,  touching  floor,  alternat-. 

ing  with  arm  flinging  sidew. 

Stretch  stride  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk. 
(1)  Arm  flinging  sidew.;  (2)  foot  placing  sidew.  with  (quick)  downward 

bending,  touching  floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arm  flinging  (forw.-) 

sidew.;  (4)  jump  to  fund.  st.  pos. 
Bend    stride    st.    forw.-downw.    bending   of   trunk,    alternating   with    arm 

stretching  sidew.  with  quick  knee  bending  (or  heel  raising). 
Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  quick  downw.  bending, 

touching  floor  (return  in  reverse  ordei^. 
Stretch  stride  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm 

bending  and  stretching  upw. 
(1)  Placing  hands  on  neck;  (2)  foot  placing  sidew.  with  downw.  bending, 

touching  floor;   (3)  trunk  raising  with  hands  on  neck;   (4)  jump  to 

fund.  pos. 


APPENDIX  211 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  then  downw. 

bending,    touching   floor    (swinging    arms    forw. -downw.      Return    in 

reverse  order). 
Stretch  stride  st.   forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm 

parting. 
Bend   stride    st.    downw.   bending,    touching    floor,    alternating   with    arm 

stretching  upw. 
(1)   Arm  bending  (or  forw.  bending  of  arms)  ;    (2)    foot  placing  sidew. 

with   downw.   bending,   touching  floor;    (3)    trunk   raising   with   arm 

flinging  (forw.-)  sidew.;   (4)  jump  to  fund.  st.  pos. 

Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upw.   with  alt.   foot  placing  sidew.,  and   forw.- 
downw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Cross    (c)    st.  arm  bending  with   alt.    foot  placing   sidew.,   then   downw. 

bending,  touching  floor   (return  in  reverse  order). 
(1)  Arm  bending;  (2)  foot  placing  sidew.  with  downw.  bending,  touching 

floor;  (3)  trunk  raising  with  arm  bending;  (4)  jump  to  pos.  with  arm 

stretching  sidew.   (or  upw.).     [Repetitions  start  from  cross   (c)    (or 

stretch)  st.  pos.] 
Arm    flinging    forw.-upw.    (or    placing   hands    overhead)    with    alt.    foot 

placing    sidew.,    then    forw.-downw.    bending    (or    downw.    bending, 

touching  floor). 
Cross  (d)  stride  st.  downw.  bending,  touching  floor,  alternating  with  arm 

raising  with  knee  bending. 

Stretch  close  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk. 
(1)  Arm  bending  (or  forw.  bending  of  arms,  or  arm  flinging  sidew.,  or 

placing  hands  on  neck  or  overhead);    (2)    foot  placing  sidew.  with 

downw.  bending,  touching  floor;    (3)   trunk  raising  with  arm  raising 

forw.-upw.;    (4)    jump   to    fund.   st.   pos.   with   arm   flinging   sidew.- 

downw. 
Stretch  stride  st.  forw.-downw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm 

parting  with  knee  bending. 
[Neck   grasp    stride    st.    forw.-downw.    bending,    alternating    with    trunk 

twisting.      Cross     (c)     stride    st.    downw.    bending,    touching    floor, 

alternating  with  trunk  twisting.] 


Lateral  Trunk  Exercises. 
(1)   Trunk  Tivistings. 

Bend  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  (to  L.  and  forw.,  then  to  R.  and  forw.). 

Neck  grasp  stride  st.  trunk  twisting. 

Arm  bending  with  alternate  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  trunk  twisting. 

Neck  grasp  close  st.  trunk  twisting. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  trunk  twisting.  ^ 

Cross  (a)  stride  st.  trunk  twisting. 

Bend  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  (to  L.  .and  forward),  alternating  with  arm 

stretching  sidew.   (then  to  R.  and  forw.,  etc.). 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  trunk  twisting. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  (obliquely)  outw.,  and  trunk  twisting. 
Cross  (c)  stride  st.  trunk  twisting. 
Forw.   bending  of   arms   with   alt.    foot   placing    (obliquely)    outw.,    and 

trunk  twisting. 
Alt.  foot  placing  (obliquely)  outw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  trunk  twisting. 


212  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Bend  close  st.  trunk  twisting  (and  return),  alternating  with  arm  stretching 

sidew. 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  alt.  trunk  twisting  all  the  way  from  L.  to  R.  in  one 

(quick)   movement. 

Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  and  trunk  twisting. 
Cross  (a)  stride  twist  st.  arm  flinging  sidew. 

Bend  stride  st.  trunk  twisting  (and  return),  alternating  with  arm  stretch- 
ing upw. 
Cross   (a)   stride  st.  trunk  twisting   (and  return),  alternating  with  arm 

flinging  sidew. 

Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  trunk  twisting. 
Close  twist  st.  arm  circumduction. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  trunk  twisting. 
Bend  stride  st  alt.  trunk  twisting  all  the  way  from  L.  to  R.  in  one  move- 
ment, alternating  with  arm  stretching  sidew. 
Bend  stride  kneeling  trunk  twisting. 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  and  trunk  twisting. 
Bend  charge  (a)  st.  (^oblique  charge)  trunk  twisting  to  same  side. 
Cross    (a)    stride   st.   alt.   trunk  twisting  all   the  way   in  one   movement, 

alternating  with  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Cross  (e)  stride  st.  trunk  twisting. 
Neck  grasp  charge  (a)  st.  trunk  twisting  to  same  side. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  trunk  twisting. 
Arm  bending  with  oblique  charge,  and  trunk  twisting  to  same  side. 
Neck  grasp  stride  kneeling  trunk  twisting. 
Stretch  stride  twist  st.  arm  parting. 

Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck,  and  trunk  twisting  to  same  sidei 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  alt.  trunk  twisting  all  the  way  in  one  movement, 

alternating  with  arm  stretching  sidew.   (palms  down  or  up). 
Bend  charge  (a)   st.  trunk  twisting  to  opposite  side. 
Cross    (a)    close   st.  alt.   trunk   twisting  all   the   way   in   one   movement. 

alternating  with  arm  flinging  sidew. 

l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  trunk  twisting. 
Neck  grasp  charge  (a)  st.  trunk  twisting  to  opposite  side. 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with   alt.   foot  placing  outw.,  then   arm   flinging 

sidew.  with  trunk  twisting. 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  alt.  trunk  twisting  all  the  way  in  one  movement, 

alternating  with  arm  stretching  upw. 

Arm  bending  with  oblique  charge,  and  trunk  twisting  to  opposite  side. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  obliquely  outw.,  then  arm  stretching 

sidew.  with  trunk  twisting. 

Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck,  and  trunk  twisting  to  opposite  side. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting. 
Cross    (c)    stride  st.  alt.  trunk  twisting  all   the   way   in  one   movement, 

alternating  with  arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew. 
Arm   bending  with    oblique   charge   and   simultaneous   trunk   twisting   to 

same  side. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  (obliquely)  outw.,  then  arm  stretching 

upw.  with  trunk  twisting. 
Alt.    foot    placing    outw.    with    hands    on    neck    and    simultaneous    trunk 

twisting. 
Arm    bending    with    alt.    foot    placing    outw.,    trunk    twisting,    then    arm 

stretching  sidew.    (or   upw.)    and   return    in    reverse  order    (6  count 

movement). 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.,  trunk  twisting,  then 

arm  flinging  sidew.  (6  counts). 


APPENDIX  .  213 

Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting  to 

same  side. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting, 

then  arm  stretching  sidew.  (or  upw.). 
Arm   bending  with   oblique   charge    and    simultaneous   trunk   twisting   to 

opposite  side. 
Forw.   bending  of   arms   with   alt.   foot  placing  outw.   and   simultaneous 

trunk  twisting,  then  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting  to 

opposite  side. 
Alt.    foot   placing   outw.   with    hands   on   neck   and    simultaneous    trunk 

twisting,  then  arm  stretching  sidew.   (or  upw.). 
Arm   bending   with   oblique   charge   and   simultaneous    trunk   twisting   to 

same  side,  then  arm  stretching  sidew.  (or  upw.). 

Arm  flinging  sidew.,  palms  up,  with  alt.   foot  placing  outw.  and  simul- 
taneous trunk  twisting,  then  arm  raising. 
Forw.    bending    of    arms    with    oblique    charge    and    simultaneous    trunk 

twisting  to  same  side,  then  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Arm  flinging   forw.-upw.  with   alt.   foot  placing  outw.   and   simultaneous 

trunk  twisting,  then  arm  parting. 
Arm  bending   with   oblique   charge   and   simultaneous   trunk   twisting   to 

opposite  side,  then  arm  stretching  upw. 
Bend    st.    oblique    charge    with    trunk    twisting    to    opposite    side    (head 

twisting  to   same  side)    and   simultaneous   arm   stretching,   one   upw. 

the  other  downw. 

The  forward  charge,  with  the  advancing  foot  turned  straight  ahead,  the 
rear  foot  at  right  angles,  may  take  the  place  of  a  trunk  twisting.  It 
corresponds  very  nearly  to  the  oblique  charge  with,  or  followed  by,  a 
trunk  twisting  to  the  same  side,  but  is  less  "definite"  and  therefore  less 
powerful  as  a  twisting  movement. 


Lateral  Trunk  Exercises  (Continued). 
(2)  Side  Bendings,  Leg  Flinging  Sidew.  and  Side  Falling  Position. 

Hip  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  (to  L.  and  return,  then  to  R. 

and  return). 

Bend  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  sidew.  L.  and  R.   (at  first  stop  at  the  change. 

Later  change  without  stopping). 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Bend   stride   st.   side  bending  of  trunk,   alternating  with   arm   stretching 

sidew. 

Cross  (a)  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 

Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Hip  grasp  st.  alt.  leg  flinging  sidew. 

Alt.  -foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Hip  grasp  close  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  side  bending  of 

trunk. 

Neck  grasp  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 

Arm  bending  with  closing  of  feet,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Neck  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  sidew.  L.  and  R. 
Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 


214  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Neck  grasp  stride  st.  alt.  side  bending  of  trunk  all  the  way  from  one 

side  to  the  other  in  one  continuous  movement.     (This  movement  may 

also  be  given  early  in  the  progression  as  a  more  or  less  "indefinite" 

movement.) 

Bend  walk  (b)  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 

Closing  of  feet  with  hands  on  neck,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Cross  (c)  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Neck    grasp    stride    st.    side    bending    of    trunk    alternating    with    arm 

stretching  sidew. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Neck  grasp  st.  alt.  leg  flinging  sidew. 
Cross  (e)  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 

Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk,  alt.  with  arm  stretching  upw. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.   foot  placing  sidew.,  and  side  bending  of 

trunk. 
l/2.  hip  grasp  l/t  stretch  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk   (one  side  at  a 

time). 
Bend   st.   arm   stretching  sidew.  with   alt.   foot  placing  sidew.,   and   side 

bending  of  trunk. 

St.  leg  flinging  sidew.  L.  and  R.,  with  opposite  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Neck  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 
l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  side  bending 

of  trunk. 
Bend  stride  st.  one  arm  stretching  upw.  with  placing  of  the  other  hand 

on  hip,  and  side  bending  of  trunk   (4  count  movement,  alternating 

to  L.  and  R.). 

St.  alt.  leg  flinging  sidew.  with  opposite  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Side  lunge  with  hands  on  hips,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  side  bending  of 

trunk. 

Stretch  stride  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Bend  st.  leg  flinging  sidew.  L.  and  R.  with  opposite  arm  stretching  sidew. 

and  placing  of  hand  on  same  side  on  hip. 
Cross  (c)   walk  (b)  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 
l/2   hip  grasp  side   falling  pos.    (side  leaning  rest)    and   return    (6  count 

movement). 
Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  one  arm  overhead,  the  other  hand  on  hip, 

and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Hip  grasp  stride  st.  side-and-knee  bending. 
Bend  walk  (a)   twist  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 

Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Arm  flinging  forw.  with  alt.  leg  flinging  sidew. 
Side  lunge  with  hands  on  neck,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
St.  leg  flinging  sidew.  L.  and  R.  with  opposite  arm  flinging  sidew.-upw. 
Neck  grasp  walk  (a)  twist  st.  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Arm    flinging    forw.-upw.    (and    sidew. -downw.)    with    alt.    foot    placing 

sidew.  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Neck  grasp  stride  st.  side-and-knee  bending. 
Y2   hip  grasp  side   falling  pos.,  about   facing  and   return   to  st.   pos.    (8 

counts). 
l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  and  side  bending 

of  trunk. 

Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  side  lunge,  and  side  bending  of  trunk. 
St.  alt.  leg  flinging  sidew.  with  arm  circumduction  (1  count  on  each  side). 


APPENDIX  215 

Cross  (c)  stride  st.  side-and-knee  bending. 

Alt.   foot   placing  outw.   with  hands   on  neck,   trunk  twisting,   then    side 

bending  of  trunk. 
Arm  bending  with  side  lunge,  then  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  side  bending 

of  trunk  (one  hand  touching  floor,  the  other  arm  vertically  overhead). 
l/z  hip  grasp  side  falling  pos.,  leg  raising,  then  return  to  st.  pos.  (8  counts). 
Cross  (c)  stride  st.  side-and-knee  bending,  alternating  with  arm  bending 

and  stretching  sidew. 
Alt.    foot    placing    outw.    with    hands    on    neck    and    simultaneous    trunk 

twisting,  then  side  bending  of  trunk. 
Arm   flinging   sidew.   with   alt.    foot   placing   sidew.,    then   side-and-knee 

bending. 
Alt.  side  lunge  with  one  arm  overhead,  the  other  hand  on  hip,  and  side 

bending  of  trunk. 

Hip  grasp  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  with  raising  of  leg  on  other  side. 
Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  hips  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting  to 

opposite  side,  then  side  bending  of  trunk  (to  same  side  as  charge). 
Arm  bending  with   alt.   foot  placing  sidew.,   then   arm   stretching  sidew. 

with  side-and-knee  bending  (one  arm  vertical,  the  other  hand  touch- 
ing floor). 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.  and  simultaneous  trunk 

twisting,  then  side  bending  of  trunk. 

Cross  (c)  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  with  raising  of  leg  on  other  side. 
Bend    st.    arm    stretching   upw.    with    alt.    foot    placing    forw.,    and    side 

bending  of  trunk. 
Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting  to 

opposite  side,  then  side  bending  of  trunk  (to  same  side  as  charge). 
Side  lunge  with  arm  flinging  sidew.  on  same  side,  upw.  on  opposite  side, 

then  side  bending  of  trunk  (one  hand  touching  floor,  the  other  arm 

horizontally  overhead,  in  line  with  trunk). 

Bend  stride  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  side-and-knee  bending,  alter- 
nating with  arm  stretching  upw. 

Neck  grasp  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  with  raising  of  leg  on  other  side. 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.,  arm  flinging  sidew. 

with  trunk  twisting,  then  side  bending  of  trunk  (6  count  movement). 
Arm  flinging  forw. -upw.  (and  sidew.-downw.)  with  side  lunge,  then 

side  bending  of  trunk. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.,  arm  stretching  upw.  with  trunk 

twisting,  theij  side  bending  of  trunk  (6  count  movement). 
l/2  bend  side  falling  pos.,  arm  stretching  upw.  with  leg  raising  (8  counts). 
Stretch  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  with  raising  of  leg  on  other  side. 


Back  and  Shoulder  Blade  Movements. 

Hip  grasp  stride  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Bend  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Neck  grasp  stride  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidew.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Bend  stride  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm  stretching 

sidew. 

Cross  (a)  close  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Cross  (a)  stride  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm  flinging 

sidew. 


216  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Alt.  foot  placing  sidevv.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  forw.  bending  of 

trunk. 

Cross  (c)  stride  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  hips,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Bend  (stride)  prone  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  (palms  down). 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  and  forw.  bending  of 

trunk. 
Bend  stride  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk,  alternating  with  arm  stretching 

upw. 

Cross  (a)  stride  prone  st.  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Neck  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  closing  of  feet,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Bend  close  prone  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.,  palms  up. 
Arm  bending  with  forw.  charge. 
Cross  (c)  prone  st.  arm  rotation. 

Alt.  foot  placing  forw.  with  hands  on  neck,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Hip  grasp  toe-support  charge. 
Prone  st.  arm  circumduction. 
Forw.  charge  with  hands  on  neck. 
J4  sidew.  bending  of   arms  with   alt.   foot  placing  sidew.,   and   forward 

bending  of  trunk. 

Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  forw.  charge. 
Stretch  stride  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Neck  grasp  toe-support  charge. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  alt.   foot  placing  forw.,  and  forw.  bending  of 

trunk. 

Bend  st.  forw.  charge  with  arm  stretching  sidew. 
Bend  walk  (a)  twist  st.  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  toe-support  charge. 
Cross  (a)  prone  st.  swimming  movements. 
Arm  bending  with  forw.  charge,  then  arm  stretching  sidew. 
Yz  sidew.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  and  forw.  bending 

of  trunk. 
Arm   bending   with    alt.    foot   placing   outw.,   trunk   twisting,    then    forw. 

bending  of  trunk  (6  counts). 

Arm  bending  with  toe-support  charge,  then  arm  stretching  sidew. 
Bend  stride  prone  st.  arm  stretching  upw. 
Arm  flinging  forw.-upw.   (or  arm  circumduction)   with  alt.  foot  placing 

sidew.,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  toe-support  charge,  then  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Alt.   foot  placing  outw.  with  hands  on  neck,  trunk  twisting,  then   forw. 

bending  of  trunk  (6  counts). 
Cross  (e)   stride  prone  st.  arm  rotation. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  forw.  bending  of  trunk,  then 

arm  stretching  sidew.  (6  counts). 
Arm  flingirlg  forw.-upw.  with  forw.  charge. 
Stretch  stride  prone  st.  arm  parting. 

Forw.  charge  with  hands  on  hips,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Arm  flinging  forw.-upw.  with  toe-support  charge. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  forw.  bending  of  trunk,  then 

arm  stretching  sidew.   (6  counts). 

Forw.  charge  with  hands  on  neck,  and  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Alt.    foot    placing   outw.   with    hands    on   neck    and    simultaneous    trunk 

twisting,  then  forw.  bending  of  trunk. 


APPENDIX  217 

Arm   bending    with    toe-support    charge    (or    forw.    charge),    then    arm 

stretching  upw. 
Arm   bending   with    oblique   charge,   trunk   twisting   to   same   side,    then 

forw.  bending  of  trunk  (6  counts). 

Arm  flinging  upw.  with  toe-support     (or  forw.)  charge,  then  arm  parting. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  forw.  bending  of  trunk,  then 

arm  stretching  upw.  (6  counts). 
Hip  grasp  horizontal  l/2  st.  pos. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.,  forw.  bending  of  trunk,  then 

arm  stretching  sidew.  (or  upw.)    (6  counts). 
Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck,  trunk  twisting  to  same  side,  then 

forw.  bending  of  trunk  (6  counts). 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.,  arm  flinging  sidew. 

with  trunk  twisting,  then  forw.  bending  of  trunk  (6  counts). 
Arm  bending  with  oblique  charge  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting,  then 

forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Neck  grasp  horizontal  Yz  st.  pos. 
Arm  flinging  forw.-upw.  with  alt.  foot  placing  sidew.,  forw.  bending  of 

trunk,  then  arm  parting  (6  counts). 
Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting,  then 

forw.  bending  of  trunk. 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.,  arm  stretching  upw.  with  trunk 

twisting,  then  forw.  bending  of  trunk  (6  counts). 
Stretch  horizontal  ^  st.  pos. 
Arm  bending   (or  placing  hands  on  neck)    with   alt.   foot  placing  outw. 

and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting,   forw.  bending  of  trunk,  then  arm 

stretching  sidew.  (or  upw.)    (6  counts). 
Arm  bending  with  alt.  foot  placing  outw.,  arm  stretching  upw.  with  trunk 

twisting,  then   forw.  bending  of  trunk,   followed  by  arm  parting   (8 

counts). 


Abdominal  Exercises. 

Knee  Upward  Bending  and  Leg  Flinging  Forward.     Prone  Falling  Posi- 
tion.    Foot   Placings   from   Prone   Falling   Position.     Kneeling 
Position:  Backward  Leaning  of  Trunk.    Horizontal  Lying 
Position:  Knee  Upward  Bending  and  Leg  Raising. 

Knee  upw.  bending  L.  and  R.,  grasping  knee  and  pressing  it  toward  chest. 

Hip  grasp  st.  knee  upw.  bending  L.  and  R.  (as  high  as  possible  without 
bending  head  and  upper  trunk  forw.).  Position  at  the  end  of  the 
up-stroke  not  held.  On  the  return  the  weight  should  settle  equally  on 
both  feet  and  the  position  be  held  for  an  instant.  At  first,  stop  the 
movement  when  changing  from  one  side  to  the  other.  Later,  changes 
are  made  without  stopping,  and  without  warning.  This  compels  the 
settling  of  the  weight  equally  on  both  feet.  The  above  applies  also 
to  standing  leg  flinging  forw.  and  sidew. 

Hip  grasp  st.  leg  flinging  forw.  L.  and  R. 

Hip  grasp  st.  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (with  and  without  holding  the  fund, 
pos.  a  moment  at  the  change). 

Hip  grasp  st.  alt.  leg  flinging  forw.  (pos.  held  at  the  change). 

Neck  grasp  st.  alt.  knee  upw.  bending. 

Neck  grasp  st.  alt.  leg  flinging  forw. 

Hip  grasp  toe  st.  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (pos.  not  held  at  the  change). 


218  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Neck  grasp  toe  st.  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (pos.  not  held  at  the  change). 

Hip  grasp  toe  st.  knee  upw.  bending  R.  and  L. 

St.   alt.   leg   flinging   forw.    with    opposite   arm    flinging    sidew.-upw.    (1 

count  each  side). 

Hip  grasp  st.  leg  circumduction  L.  and  R.,  and  alternate. 
Arm  circumduction  with  alt.  leg  flinging  forw.  (1  count  each  side). 

Prone  falling  pos.   (front  leaning  rest)  and  return  (4  counts). 

Prone  falling  pos.  with  one  foot  forw.,  the  other  leg  extended :  alt.  foot 

placing  forw.-backw. 
Prone  falling  foot  placing  (both  feet)   forw.  and  backw.  once  and  return 

(6  counts). 

Prone  falling  foot  placing  forw.  and  backw.  repeatedly. 
Prone   falling  foot  placing  sidew.    (both   feet   simultaneously)    once   and 

return  (6  counts). 

Prone  falling  foot  placing  sidew.  repeatedly. 
Prone  falling  arm  bending  once  and  return  (6  counts). 
Prone  falling  foot  placing  forw.  and  backw.  once,  then  arm  bending  once, 

and  return  (8  counts). 
Prone  falling  arm  bending  repeatedly. 

Hip  grasp  stride  kneeling  backw.  leaning  of  trunk  (the  movement  takes 

place  at  the  knee.    Head,  chest,  upper  and  lower  back  should  be  kept 

in  the  fundamental  pos.    On  command  only). 
Hip  grasp  l/i.  kneeling  backw.  leaning  of  trunk  (on  one  knee;  the  other 

foot  advanced  far  enough  to  flex  the  knee  on  that  side  90°). 
Kneeling  and  y*  kneeling  backw.  leaning  of  trunk  with  arms  in  the  bend, 

cross  (a),  neck  grasp,  cross  (e)  and  stretch  positions. 

Neck  grasp  (or  diagonal  stretch)  lying  knee  upw.  bending  L.  and  R. 
Neck  grasp  lying  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (each  movement  completed  before 

the  next  one  begins,  or  both  beginning  at  the  same  time,  one  from  the 

bent,  the  other  from  the  extended,  pos.). 

Neck  grasp  lying  knee  upw.  bending  (both  at  the  same  time). 
Neck  grasp  lying  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  and  stretching  obliquely  upw. 

(45°). 
Neck  grasp  lying  alt.  leg  raising   (each  movement  completed  before  the 

next  begins). 
Neck  grasp  lying  knee  upw.  bending  and  stretching  obliquely  upw.  to  45° 

angle   (both  moving  together). 

Neck  grasp  lying  leg  raising  (both  at  the  same  time). 
Neck  grasp  lying  alternating  leg  raising  (both  moving  at  the  same  time, 

but  in  opposite  directions). 

Neck  grasp  lying  leg  raising  and  sinking  sidew.   (both  moving  together). 
Neck  grasp  lying  leg  circumduction  (both  moving  together). 


Balance  Exercises. 

Hip  grasp  close  toe  st.  pos. 

Hip  grasp  l/2  st.  pos.,  leg  forw. 

Neck  grasp  close  toe  st.  pos. 

Hip  grasp  l/2  hook  st.  pos.  (one  knee  raised,  90°  angle  at  hip  and  knee). 

Hip  grasp  ^  st.  pos.,  leg  sidew. 


APPENDIX  219 

Hip  grasp  toe  st.  head  twisting. 

Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  toe  st.  pos. 

Hip  grasp  st.  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (2  counts  each  side),  on  command  or 
in  slow  rhythm  (quick  movements)  stopping  unexpectedly. 

Preparation  for  balance  march,  advancing  one  foot  and  raising  the  heel 
of  the  other  foot  in  separate  movements  (on  command). 

Neck  grasp  l/t  st.  pos.,  leg  forw. 

Hip  grasp  toe  st.  knee  bending. 

Balance  march,  each  step  complete,  on  command. 

Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  toe  st.  head  twisting. 

Neck  grasp  toe  st.  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (rhythmic). 

Neck  grasp  walk  (b)  toe  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  (or  upw.). 

Hip  grasp  toe  st.  march  steps  forw.   (each  on  command). 

Balance  march,  continuous  movement,  slow  rhythm. 

Hip  grasp  walk  (a)  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending  (on  command). 

Hip  grasp  ^  hook  st.  knee  stretching  forw. 

Hip  grasp  toe  st.  march  steps  backw.  (each  on  command). 

Hip  grasp  Yz  hook  st.  change  feet  in  one  quick  movement  (with  a  jump). 

Arm  circumduction  with  alt.  leg  raising  sidew. 

Hip  grasp  toe-knee  bend  st.  head  twisting. 

Cross  (c)   Yz  st.  pos.,  leg  forw. 

Balance  march  with  knee  upw.  bending. 

Reach  J4  st.  pos.,  leg  sidew.,  arm  parting  (or  flinging  sidew.). 

Stretch  walk  (c)  toe  st.  arm  parting. 

Hip  grasp  Y*  st.  pos.,  leg  forw. :  bending  of  knee  of  supporting  leg. 

Hip  grasp  toe-support  charge  pos. 

Hip  grasp  Y*.  st.  pos.,  leg  forw. :  change  feet  in  one  quick  movement  (with 
a  jump). 

Hip  grasp  walk  (b)  st.  heel  raising  and  knee  bending. 

Reach  Yz  st.  pos.,  leg  forw. :  bending  of  knee  of  supporting  leg. 

Bend  Y*  hook  st.  (slow  or  quick)  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  knee  stretch- 
ing forw. 

Hip  grasp  YL  st.  pos.,  leg  sidew. :  change  feet  in  one  quick  movement. 

Neck  grasp  toe-support  charge  pos. 

Cross  (a)   Yz  hook  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  with  knee  stretching  forw. 

Neck  grasp  Yt  st.  pos.  leg  forw.:  knee  bending  (supporting  leg). 

Cross  (c)  toe-support  charge  pos. 

Bend  Y?  hook  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with  knee  stretching  forw. 

Cross  (c)  YZ  st.  pos.,  leg  forw. :  heel  raising  (pupils  support  each  other 
by  joining  hands). 

Stretch  toe-support  charge  pos. 

Cross  (a)  walk  (b)  toe-knee  bend  st.  arm  flinging  sidew. 

Hip  grasp  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  with  raising  of  opposite  leg. 

Cross  (c)  Yi  st.  pos.,  leg  sidew.:  heel  raising  (pupils  support  each  other). 

Reach  Y*  st.  (leg  forw.)  arm  parting  with  knee  bending  (supporting  leg). 

Cross  (d)  walk  (b)  toe  st.  arm  raising  with  knee  bending. 

Hip  grasp  horizontal  ^  st.  pos.  (=  leg  raising  from  toe-support  charge 
pos.). 

Cross  (c)  Yi  st.  pos.,  leg  forw.:  heel  raising  (without  support). 

Neck  grasp  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  with  raising  of  opposite  leg. 

Cross  (c)  horizontal  Yi  st.  pos. 

Neck  grasp  horizontal  J4  st.  pos. 

Cross  (c)   3^2  st.  pos.,  leg  sidew.:  heel  raising  (without  support). 

Cross  (c)  st.  side  bending  of  trunk  with  raising  of  opposite  leg. 

Stretch  horizontal  Y*  st.  pos. 

Cross  (d)  ^  st.  pos.,  leg  forw. :  arm  raising  with  heel  raising. 


220  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Arm  Movements. 

[In  the  beginning  of  any  series  of  lessons  many  of  the  following  arm 
movements  may  be  practiced  separately  as  shoulder  blade  exercises  or 
preparatory  arching  movements.  Many  of  them  may  be  used  at  any  time 
as  breathing  exercises.  As  fast  as  their  correct  execution  is  mastered, 
they  may  be  used  in  combination  or  alternation  with  leg  and  trunk 
movements,  serving  to  increase  the  complexity  and  power  of  the  latter. 
Care  must  be  taken,  however,  to  distribute  this  class  of  movements  judi- 
ciously throughout  a  lesson,  to  vary  the  types  and  to  avoid  excessive 
recurrence.] 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  downw.  (on  command,  and  repeated  in  even 

rhythm). 

Arm  raising  or  flinging  sidew. 
Arm  rotation  (turning  of  hands). 
Forw.  bending  of  arms   (not  well  suited  for  rhythmic  repetition,  though 

may  be  so  used  if  positions  at  each  end  of  the  movement  are  well 

sustained). 

Placing  hands  on  neck  (command  only). 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.   (on  command,  and  repeated  in  even 

rhythm). 

Change  from  hip  grasp  to  neck  grasp  st.  pos.   (command  only). 
Cross  (a)  st.  arm  flinging  sidew.  (if  repeated  in  rhythm,  positions  should 

be  well  sustained). 

Arm  raising  or  flinging  sidew.  with  palms  up. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  sidew.  and  downw.   (command,  and  at  first 

even,   later  uneven,   rhythm,   holding   the   extended   longer   than   the 

flexed  pos.). 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  palms  up  (slow  or  quick,  command  or 

rhythm). 

Cross  (c)  st.  arm  rotation   (slow  or  quick,  on  command). 
Arm  raising  forw.   (command  only). 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  obliquely  upw.   (command,  even  and  broken 

rhythm). 

Arm  raising  or  flinging  forw.-sidew.  (return  through  side  plane). 
Arm  circumduction,  2  counts   (=arm  raising  or  flinging  forw.-upw.  and 

returning  through  side  plane,  turning  palms  down  as  arms  pass  the 

horizontal,  without  stopping). 

Arm  raising  or  flinging  forw.-sidew.,  palms  up  (2  counts). 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  (command  and  even  rhythm). 
Reach  st.  arm  parting,  palms  down  or  up  (slow  or  quick).     (In  the  latter 

case  arm  flinging  sidew.  is  a  better  designation.     The  return  move- 
ment is  best  done  slowly  in  any  case.) 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  and  downw.   (repetitions  in  even  and 

broken  rhythm). 
Arm  flinging  forw.,  sidew.    (palms  down  or  up)   and  downw.    (3  count 

movement,  each  part  quick,  positions  held  momentarily). 
Arm    bending   and    stretching   upw.   and    sidew.    (repetitions    in    uneven 

rhythm). 

l/2  sidew.  bending  of  arms  (command  only). 
Cross  (d)  st.  arm  raising. 
Arm  circumduction,  3  counts  (=  arm  flinging  forw.-upw.,  then  sidew.  with 

palms  up,  and  then  downw.;  all  are  quick  movements). 
Neck  grasp  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  or  upw. 
Arm  raising  or  flinging  sidew.-upw.  (continuous  movement  each  way). 


APPENDIX  221 

Arm  flinging  forvv.,  sidew.   (palms  down  or  up),  forw.  and  downw. 
Stretch  st.  arm  parting  (slow,  on  command). 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  backw.  and  sidew.  (uneven  rhythm). 
Cross  (e)  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.,  palms  down  or  up  (command). 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  one  sidew.,  the  other  downw.  (command  and 

even  or  broken  rhythm). 
Reach  st.  arm  flinging  upw.  (command). 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  forw.  and  sidew.   (uneven  rhythm). 
Cross  (e)  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  (slow  or  quick,  on  command). 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.  and  sidew.  (uneven  rhythm). 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  and  upw.   (returning  sidew.  and  downw.;  hands  are 

turned  on  the  second  and  fourth  counts). 

Arm  bending  and  stretching  upw.,  sidew.,  and  downw.   (uneven  rhythm). 
Cross   (e)   st.  arm  rotation   (on  command). 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  one  upw.,  the  other  downw. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  forw.,  upw.,  and  sidew. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  one  upw.,  the  other  sidew. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  forw.,  upw.,  sidew.,  and  downw. 
Arm  bending  and  stretching  one  forw.,  the  other  sidew. 

Charges. 

Hip  grasp  st.  oblique  charge  or,  preferably,  oblique  charge  with   (placing 

of)  hands  on  hips. 
Arm  bending  with  oblique  charge. 
Forw.  charge  with  hands  on  hips. 
Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck. 
Arm  bending  with  forw.  charge. 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  oblique  charge. 
Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  forw.  charge. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  forw.  charge. 
Hip  grasp  toe-support  charge  pos. 

Arm  bending  with  oblique  charge,  then  trunk  twisting  to  same  side. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  sidew.  with  forw.  charge. 
Bend  toe-support  charge  pos. 
Bend  st.  oblique  charge  with  arm  stretching  upw.  on  the  same  side   (as 

charge)    downw.  on  opposite  side.     Return  in  the  usual  way,  or  by 

afterstep  (rear  foot  to  the  advanced  foot). 
Cross  (a)  toe-support  charge  pos. 

Forw.  bending  of  arms  with  forw.  charge,  then  arm  flinging  sidew. 
Reverse  (backw.)  charge  with  hands  on  hips. 

Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck,  then  trunk  twisting  to  same  side. 
Cross  (c)  toe-support  charge  pos. 
Reverse  oblique  charge  with  hands  on  hips. 
Arm  flinging  forw.-upw.  with  forw.  charge. 

Arm  bending  with  oblique  charge,  then  trunk  twisting  to  opposite  side. 
Reverse  (backw.)  charge  with  hands  on  neck. 
Bend  st.  arm  stretching  upw.  with   forw.   charge.     Return   in  the  usual 

way,  or  by  afterstep. 

Reverse  oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck. 
Neck  grasp  toe-support  charge. 

Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck,  then  trunk  twisting  to  opposite  side. 
Arm  flinging  sidew.  with  reverse  (backw.)  charge. 
Arm  bending  with  forw.  charge,  then  arm  stretching  sidew. 
Arm  bending  with  reverse  oblique  charge,  then  trunk  twisting  to  side  of 

advanced  foot. 


222  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Stretch  toe-support  charge  pos. 

Arm  bending  with  oblique  charge  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting  to  same 

side. 

Arm  bending  with  forw.  charge,  then  arm  stretching  upw. 
Reverse  oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck,  then  trunk  twisting  to  side 

of  rear  foot. 

Cross  (e)  toe-support  charge  pos. 
Arm   bending  with   oblique  charge   and   simultaneous   trunk   twisting  to 

opposite  side. 
Arm  bending  with   forw.  charge,  then  arm  stretching  downw.  on  same 

side  (as  charge),  upw.  on  opposite  side.    Afterstep. 
Arm  bending  with  reverse  oblique  charge  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting 

to  side  of  advanced  foot. 
Oblique  charge  with  hands  on  neck  and  simultaneous  trunk  twisting  to 

same  side.     Same  with  twisting  to  opposite. 
Bend  st.  oblique  charge  with  arm  stretching  upw.  on  same  side,  downw.  on 

opposite  side  and  with  simultaneous  trunk  twisting  to  opposite  side, 

head  twisting  to  same  side.    Return  in  the  usual  way,  or  with  afterstep. 
Same  with  reverse  oblique  charge. 

Note. — In  all  oblique  charges  in  which  the  return  is  made  by  replacing 
the  advanced  foot,  the  change  may  be  accompanied  by  a  90°  facing,  so 
that  each  foot  strikes  the  floor  in  the  same  place. 

Free-Standing  Jumps,  Toe  Jumps,  etc. 

Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes. 

Jump  in  place  with  side-flinging  of  arms. 

Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  sidew.  (stride  jump). 

St.  jump  forw. 

Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  alt.  foot  placing  forw.-backw.    (weight 

equally  on  both  feet.    Feet  pass  each  other  at  each  step). 
Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  in  quick  and  slow  rhythm. 
Jump  forw.,  with  one  or  two  start  steps. 

Hip  grasp  st.  hop  on  one  foot  8-10  times.     Stop  at  the  change. 
Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  forw.-backw.  and  together 

(passing  through  toe  st.  pos.  each  time). 
Jump  in  place  with  side  flinging  of  arms  and  90°  turn. 
Jump  on  toes  with  arm  flinging  sidew. 

Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  alternatingly  forw.  and  backw.  (feet  together). 
Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  sidew.  and  crossing  of  feet. 
St.  jump  sidew. 
Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  both  feet  moving  together  from  one  side 

to  the  other. 

Jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  sidew.  and  arm  flinging  sidew.-upw. 
Jump  in  place  with  side  flinging  of  arms  and  180°  turn. 
Hip  grasp  l/t  st.  (leg  sidew.)  jump  on  toes  with  alt.  leg  flinging  sidew. 
Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  sidew.,  alternating  with  foot 

placing  forw.-backw. 
Hip  grasp  l/2  st.  (one  foot  raised  behind)  hop  on  one  foot  and  swing  other 

foot  forw.  and  backw.  (by  stretching  and  bending  knee). 
Hip  grasp  l/2  st.  (leg  forw. Crocking  (cut)  step  forw.    Stop  at  change. 
Jump  on  toes  with  foot  placing  forw.-backw.  and  alt.  arm  flinging  forw. 
Hip  grasp  l/2  st.  (one  foot  raised  backw.)  rocking  (cut)  step  backw. 
Jump  on  toes  with  arm  flinging  sidew.   (-upw.)  and  foot  placing  sidew., 

and  with  crossing  of  hands  and  feet  on  return. 
Hip  grasp  st.  jump  on  toes  with  alt.  knee  upw.  bending. 


APPENDIX  223 

Hip  grasp  l/t  st.  rocking  (cut)  step  forw.,  change  at  seventh  count  by  foot 

placing  sidew. 

Hip  grasp  y*  st.  (leg  sidew.)  change  feet  and  hop  once  on  each  foot. 
Jump  on  toes  with  L.  and  R.  leg  flinging  sidew.  and  arm  flinging  sidew., 

and  with  crossing  of  hands  and  feet  on  the  return. 
Hip.  grasp  l/2  st.   (one  foot  raised  backw.)   hop  on  one   foot  and  swing 

other  forw.,  change  and  swing  other  foot  backw. 
Hip  grasp  l/2  st.  (leg  sidew.)  change  feet  and  hop  once  on  each  foot  with 

bending  and  stretching  of  other  knee    ("kick"),  turning  toward  side 

of  swinging  leg. 

Hip  grasp  st.  hop  twice  on  each  foot  with  toe-and-heel  touch  and  turns. 
(1)   Hop  twice  on  R.  foot  with  arm  flinging  and  L.  leg  flinging  sidew.; 

(2)  landing  with  hands  and  feet  crossed  and  knees  slightly  bent;   (3) 

jump  with  arm  flinging  and  foot  placing  sidew.  (landing  in  cross  (c) 

stride  toe  st.  pos.)  ;  (4)  jump  to  fund.  pos.    Repeat  with  R.  leg  flinging 

sidew.  on  first  count. 
(1)  Leap  obliquely  forw.  on  L.  foot  with  L.  arm  diagonally  overhead  and 

R.  arm  and  R.  leg  behind ;  (2)  hop  once  on  L.  foot,  while  retaining  pos. 

of  L.  arm  and  R.  leg.    Repeat  on  other  side  and  continue  with  zigzag 

advance. 
(1)  Leap  and  (2)  hop  on  L.  foot  (as  in  preceding)  ;  (3)  jump  to  the  pos. 

with  knees  slightly  bent  and  hands  and  feet  crossed;  (4)  jump  to  the 

cross  stride  toe  st.  pos.;  (5)  jump  to  fund,  pos.;  (6)  hold  fund.  pos. 

(this  is  the  Hungarian  break,  modified).    Repeat  on  other  side. 
(1)  Leap  and  (2)  hop  on  L.  foot;  (3)  jump  to  R.  foot  with  arm  flinging 

sidew.  and  raising  of  L.  knee  *forw. ;   (4)  hop  once  on  R.  foot,  arms 

and  L.  leg  retaining  previous  pos.;   (5),   (6),   (.7)   and   (8),  modified 

Hungarian  break,  as  above. 


2.     APPARATUS  EXERCISES. 
TERMINOLOGY.* 


Positions: 


Standing  pos.    On  one  foot  or  both  feet. 

Sitting   pos.      Body    vertical,    hip    flexed   90°     (one    or    both)  ;    knee 

straight  or  flexed  90°    (one  or  both). 
Hanging  pos.    Hands  at  least  shoulder  distance  apart. 
Upper  arm  hanging  pos.     Body  supported  on   (forearms  and)  upper 

arms. 

Inverted  hanging  pos.     Head  down;  body  approximately  straight. 
Fall  hanging  pos.    Body  straight,  partly  supported  on  heels;  face  up; 

hands  at  least  shoulder  distance  apart ;  grasp  usually  at  shoulder 

height,  but  may  be  lower. 
Prone  hanging  pos.     Body  as  straight  as  possible   (though  inevitably 

more  or  less  arched),  partly  supported  on  toes;  face  down;  hands 

and  grasp  as  for  fall  hanging  pos. 
Knee  hanging  pos.  (inverted). 
Riding  pos.    Support  on  thighs  only. 


*In  the  main,  the  terminology  adopted  by  the  Y.  M.  C.  A.  has  been  followed. 


224  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Rests  (body  partly  supported  on  arms,  partly  on  legs)  : 

Front  rest.  On  hands  and  thighs,  facing  at  right  angles  to  the  sup- 
port; body  straight  or  slightly  arched,  inclined  about  45°. 

Free  front  rest  (momentary).  No  support  on  thighs;  body  straight, 
approaching  horizontal. 

Oblique  front  rest  (occurs  on  parallel  bars  only).  Body  straight, 
supported  on  hands  (one  on  each  bar)  and  on  one  thigh,  facing 
downw.,  30°-40°  to  the  support;  •  inclined  about  30°  to  the 
horizontal. 

Back  rest.  Support  on  hands  and  buttocks.  Body  straight,  facing 
up,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  support.  Inclinations  about  45°. 

Oblique  back  rest  (on  parallel  bars  and  horse  chiefly).  On  hands  and 
one  hip.  Face  up  and  turned  about  45°  away  from  support. 
Inclination  45°-60°  to  horizontal. 

Cross  rest  (on  parallel  bars).  Body  straight  and  vertical,  supported 
entirely  on  hands. 

Riding  rests,  body  erect,  supported  partly  on  hands,  partly  on  thighs. 

(a)  Cross  riding  rest :   facing  in  the  direction  of  the  long  axis  of 
the  apparatus  (parallel  bars,  horse),  support  on  inside  of  thighs. 

(b)  Side  riding  rest;  facing  at  right  angles  to  long  axis  of  apparatus, 
support  on  front  of  one  thigh,  back  of  the  other. 

Grasps: 

Ordinary  or  overgrasp.    Palms  facing  forw. 
Reverse  grasp.     Palms  facing  backw. 
Combined  grasp.    One  hand  each  way. 

Wide  and  narrow  grasp.  •  More  •  and  less  than  shoulder  distance 
between  hands. 

Movements: 

Mounts.  A  spring  from  both  feet  (usually),  preceded  or  not  by  a 
short  run,  to  stated  position  on  apparatus.  When  mounting  to 
middle  of  parallel  bars  from  ends,  swing  arms  straight,  inside 
bars. 

Principal  mounts :  squat,  straddle,  */>  squat  */2  straddle  mounts ;  face 
vault  and  side  vault  mounts.     Like  corresponding  vaults.     Jump 
mount   (usually  from  one  foot)  to  standing  pos.  on  one  foot  or 
both  feet. 
Dismounts.    From  position  on  apparatus  to  floor. 

Forward :      In    the    direction    faced    when    in    the    last    pos.    on 

apparatus. 

Backward  :     In  the  opposite  direction. 
Sideways :    In  a  direction  at  right  angles  to  last  pos. 
Face   (vault)    dismount  L.  and  R. :     Front  of  the  body  toward 

apparatus  at  moment  of  leaving  it. 
Back   (vault)    dismount  L.  and  R. :     Back  of   the  body  toward 

apparatus  when  leaving  it. 
Side  (vault)  dismount :    Side  of  the  body  toward  apparatus  when 

leaving  it. 

Jumps.  From  one  foot  or  both  feet  without  help  of  hands  to  or  over 
apparatus. 

Hop :     Spring  from  one  foot,  land  on  same  foot. 
Step :     Spring  from  one  foot,  land  on  the  other. 
Jump :  Spring  from  one  foot  or  both  feet,  land  on  both  feet,  or 

in  any  given  pos.  on  apparatus. 


APPENDIX  225 

Vaults.    From  one  foot  or  both  feet,  over  an  apparatus  with  support 
on  one  or  both  hands. 

I.  Vertical    vaults:      Body    erect    when    passing    apparatus,    only 

momentary  support  on  hands. 
Squat  vault :     Feet  pass  between  hands. 
Straddle  vault:  Feet  pass  outside  of  hands. 
J4  squat  Yz  straddle  vault:  One  foot  between,  other  foot  outside 

hands.    L.  and  R.  refer  to  outside  foot. 
Knee   vault :    Between   hands,   witR   momentary   support   on   and 

quick  spring  from  lower  leg. 
Yz  knee   Y*   straddle  vault :   As  preceding  with  one  knee,  other 

leg  straight,  outside  hand. 
Front  vault:   Between  hands;  body  approximately  in  fund,  pos., 

somewhat  arched.     Chest  leading,  feet  last. 
Rear   (or  backw.)   squat  vault:  As  squat  vault,  but  body  turned 

180°  before  passing  apparatus. 
Rear    (or  backw.)    straddle   vault:   As  straddle  vault,  but  body 

turned  180°  before  passing  apparatus. 
Cross-legged   straddle   vault :    Feet   outside   hands,   legs   crossed, 

hips  turned,  shoulders  square  to  the  front. 

II.  Horizontal    vaults:    Body    approximately    in    horizontal    pos. 

when  passing  apparatus;  support  on  hands  somewhat  longer 
than  in  vertical  vaults. 
Face  vault :     Front  of  body  toward  apparatus  at  the  moment  of 

passing  it. 

Side  vault:     Side  of  the  body  toward  apparatus. 
Back  vault:  Back  of  the  body  toward  apparatus.     (There  is  more 

or  less  of  a  bend  at  the  hips.) 

Oblique   (back)   vault :  From  one  foot  with  support  of  opposite 
hand.       Back    of     body     toward     apparatus.       Direction     of 
approach  and  passing  apparatus  about  45°. 
Turns.      On    apparatus    or    on    landing    in    vaults    and    dismounts: 

y4  —  90°,  Y2  =  ISO0,  3/4  =  270°,  full  turn  =  360°. 
Circles.      1.     Body.     Forward:    head   moves    in   the    direction    faced. 

Backw. :  in  opposite  direction. 
2.     Leg.    y2  circle  =  180° ;  full  circle  =  360°. 

Left :  in  direction  opposite  hands  of  clock.     Right :  with 
hands  of  clock. 


(1)     APPARATUS  EXERCISES  FOR  WOMEN. 

Horizontal  Ladder. 

Hanging  pos.  (one  hand  on  each  side,  several  pupils  at  once).     Dismount. 

Hanging  pos.:  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (2  counts  each  side). 

Hanging  pos. :  alt.  side  swing  from  waist. 

Travel  forw.,  hands  outside,  with  side  swing  from  waist. 

Travel  backw.,  hands  outside,  with  side  swing  from  waist. 

Hanging   pos. :    alt.   knee   upw.    bending    (both    move    simultaneously,    ins 

opposite  directions). 

Travel  forw.,  hands  outside,  without  swing. 
Travel  backw.,  hands  outside,  without  swing. 
Hanging  pos. :  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  and  stretching  forw. 


226  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Travel  sidew.,  hands  on  outside,  with  swing  from  waist,  L.  hand  leading, 

then  R.  hand  leading. 
Hanging  pos. :  knee  upw.  bending  (both). 

Hanging  pos. :  side  swing  from  waist  and  shoulders,  with  alt.  arm  bending. 
Travel  sidew.  without  swing.    L.  and  R.  hand  leading. 
Hanging  pos.:   knee   upw.  bending    (both)    with   simultaneous  alt.  trunk 

twisting  and  slight  swinging  to  same  side. 
Rotary    traveling    forw.    on    rungs,    skipping    one,    turning    forw.    180° 

alternately  L.  and  R.  with  swing.    Grasp  each  time  with  palm  facing 

forw. 

Swing  jump  (start  from  bench  placed  close  to  wall). 
Travel  forw.  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time,  first  L.  hand  leading,  then  R.  hand. 
Start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backw.  swing. 
Rotary  traveling  backw.  on  jungs,  skipping  one,  turning  (backw.)   180°  L. 

and   R.     Grasp   with   back  of  hand   facing   in   the   direction   of   the 

movement. 

Travel  backw.  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time,  first  L.  hand  leading,  then  R.  hand. 
Short  jumps  forw.,  hands  on  sides  of  ladder. 
Start  swing,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing. 
Travel   forw.  and  backw.  on  rungs,  skipping  one  at  each  step,  without 

swing. 
Travel  sidew.  on  rungs. 


High  Boom. 

Hanging  pos.     Dismount. 

Hanging  pos.:  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  (2  counts  each  side). 

Hanging  pos. :  alt.  side  swing  from  waist. 

Hanging   pos. :    alt.   knee   upw.   bending    (both    move   simultaneously,    in 

opposite  directions. 

Hand  traveling  sidew.,  L.  and  R.  leading,  with  side  swing  from  waist. 
Hanging  pos. :  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  and  stretching  forw. 
Hand  traveling  sidew.,  L.  and  R.  leading,  without  swing. 
Hanging  pos.:  knee  upw.  bending  (both). 
Hanging    pos. :    side    swing    from    waist    and    shoulders,    with    alt.    arm 

bending. 
Rotary  hand  traveling  forw.   (combined  grasp),  turning  (forw.)    180°  L. 

and  R.  alternately. 
Jump  to  bent  arm  hanging  pos.  with  combined  grasp,  slow  arm  stretching. 

(Use  assistance,  if  necessary,  on  the  mount.) 
Hanging  pos.:  knee  upw.  bending  (both)  with  alt.  trunk  twisting  and  swing 

to  same  side. 
Jump    from   behind   boom,    swing    forw.    and    dismount    (=  swing  jump, 

standing  start,  from  both  feet). 
Rotary  hand  traveling  backw.   (combined  grasp),  turning  (backw.)    180° 

L.  and  R.  alternately. 

Jump  from  behind  boom,  start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backw.  swing. 
Jump  from  behind  boom,  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing. 
Rotary  hand  traveling,  starting  with   reverse  grasp,  turning   180°    L.   to 

ordinary  grasp,  etc.    Repeat  turning  to  R.  each  time. 

Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backw.  swing  with  90°  turn  L.  and  R. 
Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing  with  90°  turn  L.  and  R. 
Swing  jump,  running  start  from  both  feet,  without  and  with  turns  on 

landing. 


APPENDIX  227 

Low  Boom. 

1.  Suspension  exercises. 

Grasp  bend  toe  st.  arm  stretching  with  knee  bending  (boom  at  height  of 

chin). 
Fall  hanging  pos.   (boom  at  height  of  shoulders  or  lower)  and  return  by 

moving  one  foot  at  a  time. 

Fall  hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  and  return  through  deep  knee-bend  st.  pos. 
Fall  hanging  pos. :  hand  traveling  sidew. 
Fall  hanging  pos. :  touch  floor  with  L.  hand,  then  R.  hand. 
Fall  hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  4-6  times ;  swing  up  to  standing  pos. 
Fall  hanging  pos. :  hand  traveling  sidew.  with  bent  arms. 

2.  Arm  support  exercises  and  vaults. 

(All  exercises  to  be  done  from  standing  start.     Boom  height  of  hips 

or  waist.) 
Free  front  rest. 

Front  rest,  dismount  straight  backw. 
Preparation  for  side  vault :  swing  legs  L.  and  R. 
Front  rest,  dismount  backw.  with  90°  turn  L.  and  R. 
Low  side  vault  L.  and  R. 
Free  front  rest  with  90°  turn  on  landing. 
Front  rest:  reverse  grasp,  forw.  circle  to  fall  hanging  pos.,  swing  up  to 

standing  pos. 

Low  face  vault  L.  and  R.   (combined  grasp). 
Reverse  grasp:  backw.  circle  to  front  rest;  dismount  backw.;  or  return  by 

forw.  circle  to  fall  hang.  pos.  (boom  at  height  of  shoulders). 
Back  vault  L.  and  R. 


Double  Boom. 

Serpentine  traveling   (from  grasp  sitting  pos.     Pupils  move  around  each 

other). 
Standing  oblique  vault  from  outside  foot,  outside  hand  on  upper  boom, 

inside  hand  on  lower  boom. 

Running  oblique  vault  from  one  foot,  one  hand  on  each  boom. 
Running  oblique  swing  jump  from  one  foot,  both  hands  on  upper  boom. 
Running  side  vault  L.    (from  both   feet,  L.  hand  on  upper,  R.  hand  on 

lower  boom). 
Running  side  vault  R.   (from  both  feet,  R.  hand  on  upper,  L.  hand  on 

lower  boom). 

Running  oblique  swing  jump  from  both  feet,  both  hands  on  upper  boom. 
Running  back  vault  L.,  L.  hand  on  upper,  R.  hand  on  lower  boom. 
Running  back  vault  R.,  R.  hand  on  upper,  L.  hand  on  lower  boom. 
Running  side  vault  L.  with  90°  R.  turn. 
Running  side  vault  R.  with  90°  L.  turn. 
Running  back  vault  L.  with  90°  L.  turn. 
Running  back  vault  R.  with  90°  R.  turn. 

Running  swing  jump  (perpendicular  approach)   from  both  feet. 
With  upper  boom  at  height  of  shoulders  or  head :  mount  to  momentary 

front  rest,  then  high  face  vault  L.,  L.  hand  on  lower,  R.  hand  on 

upper  boom. 
High  face  vault  R.,  R.  hand  on  lower,  L.  hand  on  upper  boom. 


228  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

» 

Saddle  Boom. 

(All  exercises  to  be  done  with  running  start.) 
Free  front  rest. 

Preparation  for  side  vault :  swing  legs  to  L:  and  R. 
Squat  mount,  dismount  forw.  (ordinary  or  rising  dismount). 
J4  squat  mount  (other  leg  behind)  ;  rising  dismount  forw. 
Squat  vault. 

M  squat  J4  straddle  mount;  rising  dismount. 
Side  vault  L.  and  R. 
V*  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  L.  and  R. 

Side  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90°  turn  R.  and  L.,  respectively. 
Straddle  vault. 

Vertical  Ropes. 

Grasp  bend  toe  st.  arm  stretching  with  knee  bending. 

Fall  hanging  pos.:  arm  bending;  return  through  knee  bend  st.  pos. 

Jump  to  hanging  pos.;  dismount. 

Fall  hanging  alt.  leg  raising. 

Jump  to  bent  arm  hanging  pos.:  slow  arm  stretching. 

Fall  hanging  pos. :  touch  floor  with  L.  and  R.  hand. 

Climbing  pos.  (arms  straight,  hips  and  knees  flexed,  feet  well  forw.). 

Run,  swing  forw.,  then  backw.  and  dismount. 

Climbing  pos. :  arm  bending  and  stretching. 

Prone  hanging  pos.  by  placing  one  foot  at  a  time  backw. 

Run,  start  swing,  dismount  on  forw.  swing. 

Climbing,  using  arms  and  legs,  in  three  distinct  movements:    (1)   Jump 

to    climbing   pos.    with    straight    arms,    etc.;     (2)    bend    arms    with 

straightening  of  legs;    (3)   shift  hands  as  high  as  possible   (straight 

arms).    Then  (1)  draw  knees  up  with  feet  well  forw.,  keeping  arms 

straight;  (2)  bend  arms,  etc.  (as  before). 
Prone  hanging  pos. :  change  to  fall  hanging  pos. 
Run,  jump    (before  ropes  pass  the  vertical)    to  bent  arm  hanging  pos. 

Dismount  on  next  backw.  or  forw.  swing. 
Run,  jump,  grasp  as  high  as  possible  and  at  the  same  time  raise  legs; 

dismount  immediately. 
Run,  jump,  take  high  grasp,  bend  arms   and   raise  legs,  then  dismount 

(=  swing  jump). 
Climbing  on  two  ropes.     Movements  the  same  as  when  climbing  on  one 

rope,  but  the  hands  should  be  shifted  simultaneously,  and  very  quickly, 

as  soon  as  arms  are  bent  and  legs  straight. 
Inverted  hanging  pos.  on  2  ropes.     Return  forw.  by  bending  at  hips,  and 

with  arm  bending.  , 

Horizontal  or  oblique  climbing  from  rope  to  rope.    Climb  up  a  little  on  one 

rope,  grasp  the  next  rope  with  one  hand,  then  with  the  legs,  then 

release  grasp  of  other  hand  and  repeat  immediately. 
Quick  backw.  circle  between  two  ropes. 
Inverted  hanging  pos.  on  one  rope. 

Window  Ladder. 

Climb  up  one  or  two  spaces  and  return  (opposite  hand  and  foot  moving 

together) . 

Climb  to  second  rung:  high  st.  arm  stretching  with  knee  bending. 
Jump  to  sitting  pos.  in  lowest  space :  pass  through. 


APPENDIX  229 

High  Yz  st.  (on  one  foot)  arm  stretching  with  knee  bending. 

Oblique  zigzag  climbing,  turning  L.  and  R.  alternately.     Return  in  similar 
manner,  feet  first.  . 

(On  the  tall  and  narrow  ladder  two  pupils,  on  the  low  and  wide  ladder 
4  or  5  pupils  may  do  the  exercise  at  the  same  time,  sitting  in  con- 
tiguous spaces.) 

Vertical  climbing,  turning  L.  and  R.  (on  tall  ladder). 

Horizontal  climbing,  turning  L.  and  R.   (on  wide  ladder). 

Oblique  zigzag  climbing,  turning  L.  and  R.     Return  head  first. 

Rope  Ladders. 

(At  first,  ladders  are  fastened  to  the  floor,  or  held  by  two  pupils,  later  they 

should  swing  free  while  pupils  are  climbing.) 
Climbing  with  hands  and  feet,  one  rung  at  a  time,  first  L.  hand  and  R. 

foot  leading,  then  R.  hand  and  L.  foot. 
Climbing  with  hands  and   feet,  each  hand  and   foot  skipping  one  rung. 

(Opposite  hand  and  foot  move  together.    Body  close  to  ladders,  knees 

and  elbows  well  sideways.) 
Grasping  one  ladder  with   each  hand   as   high   as   possible,   start  swing, 

dismount  on  backw.,  then  on  forw.  swing. 
Start  swing,  spring  to  bent  arm  hanging  pos.,  dismount  on  backw.  and 

forw.  swing. 

Climbing :  2  pupils  on  each  ladder,  turning  toes  in.. 
Start  swing,  spring  to  bent  arm  hanging  pos.,  raise  legs   and  dismount 

immediately   (swing  jump). 

Inverted  hanging  pos.  without  and  with  swing,  using  2  ladders. 
Backw.  circle  between  2  ladders. 

Vaulting  Box. 

Free  front  rest. 

Mount  to  kneeling  pos.,  step  up  to  standing  pos.,  dismount  forw. 

Mount  to  prone  falling  pos.,  face  dismount  L.  and  R. 

Mount  to  kneeling  pos.,  step  on  box  with  L.  foot  and  vault  L.  with  90° 

R.  turn.    Same  on  otfrer  side. 
Mount  to  side  falling  pos.,  dismount  forw. 
Low  face  vault  L.  and  R.,  touching  with  one  foot. 

Low  side  vault  L.  and  R.,  stepping  on  box  with  R.  and  L.  foot  respectively. 
Vault  to  kneeling  pos.,  dismount  forw. 
Squat  mount  to  standing  pos.,  dismount  forw. 

Yz  squat  l/2  straddle  mount  L.  and  R.  (over  ends  of  box),  rising  dismount. 
Face  vault  L.  and  R.  (clear). 
Knee  vault. 

Side  vault  L.  and  R.  (clear). 

Squat  mount  (to  momentary  pos.  with  bent  knees),  rising  dismount. 
Yi.  squat  Yi  straddle  vault  L.  and  R.  (over  ends  of  box). 
Back  vault  L.  and  R. 
Squat  vault. 

Oblique  vault  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Side  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90°  turn  R.  and  L.  respectively. 
Vault   to  kneeling  pos.,   spring  up   to   standing  pos.,   ordinary   or   rising 

dismount. 

Face  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90°-180°  R.  and  L.  turn  respectively. 
Back  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90° -180°  L.  and  R.  turn  respectively. 


230  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Side  Horse  (with  Pommels). 

Front  rest,  dismount  backw. 

Free  front  rest. 

Mount  to  kneeling  pos.,  step  with  L.  foot  and  vault  L.  with  90°  turn  to  R. 

Same  on  other  side. 
Preparation  for  side  vault:  spring   (from  both  feet)   and  swing  legs  to 

L.  and  R. 

Mount  to  kneeling  pos.,  step  up  to  standing  pos.,  dismount  forw. 
Side  vault  L.,  stepping  with  L.  foot  on  end  of  horse.    Same  on  other  side. 
Vault  to  kneeling  pos.,  dismount  forw. 

l/2  squat  l/2  straddle  mount,  rising  dismount  (over  ends  of  horse). 
Low  side  vault  L.  and  R.  over  ends. 
l/2  knee  l/t  straddle  vault  L.  and  R.  over  ends. 
Squat  mount,  dismount  forw. 
l/t  squat  Y*  straddle  vault  L.  and  R.  over  ends. 
Knee  vault. 
Side  vault  L.  and  R. 
Low  face  vault  L.  and  R.  over  ends. 
Squat  vault. 
Face  vault  L.  and  R.  (hands  either  on  pommels  or  preferably  on  ends  of 

horse,  body  clearing  the  pommels  in  the  vault). 
Back  vault  L.  and  R. 

Side  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90°-180°  turn  R.  and  L.  respectively. 
Face  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90° -180"  turn  R.  and  L.  respectively. 
Back  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90° -180°  turn  L.  and  R.  respectively. 
Squat  vault  with  90°  turn  L.  and  R. 

Long  Horse. 

Mount  to  riding  pos.,  face  (vault)  dismount  L.  and  R. 

Mount  to  riding  pos.,  back  (vault)  dismount  L.  and  R. 

Mount  to  oblique  back  rest,  dismount  sidew. 

Oblique  vault  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Back  vault  mount  L.  and  R.  to  riding  pos.,  back  (vault)  dismount. 

Oblique  vault  from  L.  and  R.  foot,  with  90°  inside  turn(  facing  horse,  with 

both  hands  on  it,  in  the  landing). 
Back  vault  L.  and  R. 
Oblique  vault  from  L.  and  R.  foot  with  180°  inside  turn  (facing  near  end 

of  horse  and  keeping  one  hand  on  horse  in  the  landing). 
Back  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90°-180°  inside  turn. 

Buck. 

Free  front  rest.     Same  with  leg  flinging  sidew. 

Preparation  for  side  vault :  spring,  swing  legs  L.  and  R. 

l/2  knee  l/2  straddle  vault  L.  and  R.  (with  assistance  at  first). 

Straddle  vault. 

Mount  to  kneeling  pos.,  step  up  to  standing  pos.',  dismount  forw. 

Low  side  vault  L.  and  R. 

l/t   squat    l/2   straddle   mount   L.   and   R.,   dismount   immediately   with   a 

moderate  spring  from  supporting  foot. 
Vault  to  kneeling  pos.,  dismount  forw. 
Low  face  vault  L.  and  R. 
Straddle  vault  for  distance  on  far  side. 


APPENDIX'  231 

Knee  vault. 

l/2  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  L.  and  R. 

Back  vault  L.  and  R. 

Squat  mount,  dismount  forw.  (try  rising  dismount). 

Straddle  vault  with  90°-180°  turn  L.  and  R. 

Squat  vault. 

Side  straddle  vault  L.  and  R. 

Rear  straddle  vault,  turning  L.  and  R. 

Parallel  Bars. 
Suspension  exercises,  mounts,  vaults,  etc. 

Fall  hanging  pos. :  arm  bending. 

Fall  hanging  pos.:  hand  traveling  backw.  between  bars  (feet  on  floor). 

Fall  hanging  pos.:   bent  arm  hand  traveling   forw.  between  bars    (feet 

on  floor). 

From  side  of  bars :  run,  mount  to  side  sitting  pos.  L.  and  R.,  side  dismount. 
From  end  of  bars :  run,  spring,  grasping  ends  of  bars,  swing  forw.,  then 

backw.  and  dismount. 
Run,  mount  to  riding  rest  (hips  and  knees  flexed  at  first,  later  extended), 

swing  backw.  between  bars  and  dismount. 
Run,  mount  to  riding  rest,  raise  R.  leg  forw.  and  dismount  over  L.  bar 

with  180°  L.  turn  (keeping  L.  hand  on  bar).     Same  on  other  side. 
From  side  of  bars :  run,  mount  to  L.  side  sitting  pos.,  turn  90°    R.  to 

momentary  back  rest  and  dismount  forw.    Same  on  other  side. 
Run,  mount  to  L.  side  sitting  pos.,  turn  90°  L.  to  front  rest,  hands  on  other 

bar,  dismount  backw.     Same  on  other  side. 
Run,  mount  to  L.  side  sitting  pos.,  turn  90°   L.  to  front  rest,  hands  on 

other  bar,    swing   R.   leg  between   bars;    on   return   swing   dismount 

backw.  with  90°  R.  turn.     Same  on  other  side. 
From  en'd  of  bars:   run,  spring  and  swing    (straight)    arms  inside  ends 

of  bars    (grasping  some  distance  in  on  bars)    swing  forw.  to  cross 

riding  (rest)  pos.,  swing  one  leg  forw.  with  90°  turn  to  opposite  side 

to  momentary  back  rest  on  one  bar    (both  hands  on  this  bar)    and 

dismount  forw.     Same  on  other  side. 
Run,  spring,  etc.,  swing  forw.  and  mount  at  once  to  back  rest  on  one  bar; 

dismount  forw.    Same  on  other  side. 
Run,  etc.,  back  vault  L.  and  R. 
Run,  mount  to  oblique  back  rest  on  one  bar   (one  hand  on  each  bar)  ; 

dismount  sidew.     Same  on  other  side. 
Run,  mount  to  oblique  back  rest  on  L.  bar,  135°  R.  turn  to  front  rest, 

dismount  backw.     Same  on  other  side. 

Run,  mount  to  riding  pos.,  face   (vault)   dismount  L.  and  R. 
Run,  back  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90°-180°  outside  turn. 
Run,  mount  to  riding  pos.,  back  (vault)   dismount  L.  and  R. 
Run,  back  vault  L.  and  R.  with  90°-180°  inside  turn. 
Run,  mount  to  back  rest  on  one  bar,  drop  back,  raise  legs  and  roll  over 

backw.  to  standing  pos.  at  side  of  bars  (with  assistance). 

High  Jumps. 

Running  jump  from  L.  and  R.  foot,  land  facing  forw. 
Running  jump  from  both  feet,  land  facing  forw. 
Running  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  with  90°  L.  turn. 


232  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Running  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  with  90°  R.  turn. 

Running  jump  from  both  feet,  land  with  90°  L.  and  R.  turn. 

Running  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  with  90°  R.  turn. 

Running  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  with  90°  L.  turn. 

Running  jump  from  both  feet  with  side-flinging  of  arms. 

Running  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  with  180°  L.  turn. 

Running  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  with  180°  R.  turn. 

Running  jump  from  both  feet,  land  with  180°  L.  and  R.  turn. 

Running   jump    from   L.    foot,   land   on    R.    foot   and   keep   on    running 

(hurdle).    Same  on  other  side. 

Similar  jumps  using  springboard  or  inclined  plane  placed  on  low  boom. 
Standing  high  jump  forw. 
Standing  high  jump  L.  and  R.  (side  to  the  bar  or  rope). 

Broad  Jumps. 

Standing  hop  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Standing  step  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Standing  jump  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Standing  broad  jump. 
Standing  2  hops  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Standing  2  steps  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Standing  hop,  step  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Standing  step,  hop  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Standing  hop,  jump  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Standing  step,  jump  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

2  standing  broad  jumps. 
Standing  hop,  step  and  jump. 

3  standing  broad  jumps. 


(2)     APPARATUS  WORK  FOR  MEN. 

Horizontal  Ladder. 

(All  exercises  on  this  apparatus  are  done  with  straight  arms  when  not 
otherwise  specified.) 

Travel  forw.,  hands  on  outside  of  ladder. 

Travel  backw.,  hands  on  outside  of  ladder. 

Travel  forw.,  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time,  first  L.  hand  leading,  then  R.  hand. 

Travel  backw.,  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time,  first  L.  hand  leading,  then  R.  hand. 

Travel  sidew.  on  outside,  L.  hand  leading,  then  R.  hand. 

Hanging  pos. :  alt.  knee  upw.  bending. 

Hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  2-3  times. 

Short  jumps  forw.,  hands  on  outside. 

Short  jumps  backw.,  hands  on  outside. 

Rotary  traveling  forw.,  on  rungs,  skipping  one   (swing  and  V?  turn  each 

step). 

Travel  forw.,  on  rungs,  skipping  one  (without  swing  or  turn). 
Travel  sidew.,  on  outside,  with  swing  and  alt.  arm  bending,  L.  leading, 

then  R. 

Hanging  pos. :  knee  upw.  bending. 
Hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  3-4  times. 
Travel  forw.,  with  bent  arms,  hands  on  outside. 
Travel  backw.,  with  bent  arms,  hands  on  outside. 


APPENDIX  233 

Rotary  traveling  backw.  on  rungs,  skipping  one  (with  swing  and  l/2  turn 

each  step). 

Travel  backw.  on  rungs,  skipping  one  (without  swing  or  turn). 
Travel  sidew.  on  rungs,  L.  leading  (without  swing  or  turn). 
Travel  sidew.  on  rungs,  R.  leading  (without  swing  or  turn). 
Travel  forw.  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time,  bent  arms. 

Jump  forw.  from  end  of  ladder,  shoot  forw.  and  dismount  (swing  jump). 
Hanging  pos. :  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  and  stretching  forw. 
Short  jumps  forw.,  bent  arms,  hands  on  outside. 
Short  jumps  backw.,  bent  arms,  hands  on  outside. 
Travel  forw.,  L.  knee  up,  hands  on  outside. 
Travel  backw.,  R.  knee  up,  hands  on  outside. 
Travel  backw.  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time,  bent  arms. 
Rotary  traveling  forw.  on  rungs,  skipping  two   (with  swing  and  l/2  turn 

each  step). 

Travel  sidew.,  on  outside,  bent  arms,  L.  leading,  then  R. 
Hanging  pos. :  knee  upw.  bending  with  alt.  twisting. 
Jump  forw.  from  end  of  ladder,  shoot  forw.,  catch  and  dismount. 
Jump  forw.  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time. 
Jump  backw.  on  rungs,  one  at  a  time. 
Travel  forw.,  hands  on  outside,  arms  bent,  R.  leg  raised. 
Travel  backw.,  hands  on  outside,  arms  bent,  L.  leg  raised. 
Short  jumps  sidew.,  hands  on  outside,  L.  leading,  then  R. 
Travel  sidew.  on  rungs,  bent  arms,  L.  leading,  then  R. 
Jump  forw.,  shoot  forw.,  catch  and  dismount  with  J4  L-  and  R.  turn. 
Jump  forw.,  hands  alternatingly  on  rungs  and  on  outside. 
Jump  backw.,  hands  alternatingly  on  rungs  and  on  outside. 
Travel  forw.,  bent  arms,  hands  on  outside,  with  alt.  knee  upw.  bending. 
Travel  backw.,  bent  arms,  hands  on  outside,  with  knees  drawn  up. 
Short  jumps  sidew.,  bent  arms,  hands  on  outside,  L.  leading,  then  R. 
Travel  sidew.  on  rungs,  hands  double  distance  apart,  L.  leading,  then  R. 
Start  swing,  jump  backw.,  catch  and  dismount. 


Suspended  Parallels. 

(All  exercises  on  this  apparatus  are  done  with  straight  arms  when  not 
otherwise  specified.) 

Travel  forw.,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 

Travel  backw.,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 

Travel  sidew.,  on  one  bar,  with  swing  from  waist,  L.  leading,  then  R. 

Hanging  pos :.  alt.  knee  upw.  bending. 

Hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  2-3  times. 

Travel  sidew.,  on  one  bar,  without  swing,  L.  leading,  then  R. 

Short  jumps  forw.,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 

Short  jumps  backw.,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 

Travel  sidew.,  on  one  bar,  with  alt.  arm  bending,  L.  leading,  then  R. 

Jump  forw.,  between  bars,  hands  outside,  pull  up,  shoot  forw.  and  dismount 

(swing  jump). 

Hanging  pos. :  knee  upw.  bending. 
Hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  3-4  times. 
Travel  forw.,  bent  arms,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 
Travel  backw.,  bent  arms,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 
Rotary  traveling  forw.,  on  one  bar   (one  hand  inside,  the  other  outside, 

with  swing  and  K  turn  each  step). 


234  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Rotary  traveling  backw.,  on  one  bar  (one  hand  inside,  the  other  outside, 

with  swing  and  l/2  turn  each  step). 

Travel  sidew.,  on  one  bar  bent  arms,  L.  leading,  then  R. 
Jump  forw.,  between  bars,  shoot  forw.,  catch  and  dismount. 
Hanging  pos. :  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  and  stretching. 
Hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  4-5  times. 
Short  jumps  forw.,  bent  arms,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 
Short  jumps  backw.,  bent  arms,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 
Travel  forw.,  L.  knee  up,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 
Travel  backw.,  R.  knee  up,  one  hand  on  each  bar. 
Rotary  traveling  on  one  bar,  turning  L.  180°  (both  hands  same  grasp). 
Rotary  traveling  on  one  bar,  turning  R.  180°   (both  hands  same  grasp). 
Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  backw.  swing,  hands  outside  or  inside. 
Hanging  pos. :  knee  upw.  bending  with  alt.  twisting. 
At  ends  of  bars :  pull  up,  with  knees  bent,  to  inverted  hanging  pos. 
Travel  forw.  on  one  bar,  bent  arms,  head  on  L.  side,  then  on  R.  side. 
Short  jumps  sidew.  on  one  bar  (straight  arms),  L.  leading,  then  R. 
Travel  forw.,  one  hand  on  each  bar,  bent  arms,  R.  leg  raised. 
Travel  backw.,  one  hand  on  each  bar,  bent  arms,  L.  leg  raised. 
Rotary  traveling  forw.  on  L.  and  R.  bars  alternatingly,  combined  grasp. 
Jump  forw.  between  bars,  shoot  forw.,  catch  and  dismount  with  %  L.  and 

R.  turn. 

At  ends  of  bars:  pull  up,  with  straight  knees,  to  inverted  hanging  pos. 
Travel  backw.  on  one  bar,  bent  arms,  head  on  L.  side,  then  on  R.  side. 
Travel  forw.  on  both  bars,  bent  arms  with  alt.  knee  upw.  bending. 
Travel  backw.  on  both  bars,  bent  arms,  with  knees  drawn  up. 
Short  jumps  sidew.,  on  one  bar,  bent  arms,  L.  leading,  then  R. 
Rotary  traveling  backw.  on  L.  and  R.  bars  alternatingly,  combined  grasp. 
Jump,  start  swing,  jump  backw.,  catch  and  dismount  with  Y*  L-  and  R. 

turn. 
At  ends  of  bars:  pull  up  to  inverted  hanging  pos.;   l/2  circle  backw.  to 

floor   (body  straight). 

Travel  forw.,  bent  arms,  with  alt.  leg  raising. 
Travel  backw.,  bent  arms,  with  legs  raised. 
Long  underswing,   on   return  swing  mount  to  upper   arm   hanging  pos. 

(hands  inside). 

Rotary  traveling  on  one  bar  bent  arms,  turning  L.  180°  at  each  step. 
Rotary  traveling  on  one  bar  bent  arms,  turning  R.  180°  at  each  step. 
Long  swinging  jumps  forw. 

At  ends  of  bars :  pull  up,  raise  legs,  cut  L.  hand,  then  R. 
At  ends  of  bars:  pull  up,  raise  legs,  cut  both  hands  (assistance). 
Reverse  grasp  on  one  bar,  jump  across  forward  to  other  bar,  with  over- 
grasp,  Yz  L.  turn,  reverse  grasp.    Repeat. 
As  preceding,  but  starting  with  overgrasp  and  jumping  backw.  to  reverse 

grasp  on  other  bar. 

Vertical  Ropes. 

Standing  position  between  ropes,  grasp  at  height  of  chin :  arm  stretching 
and  bending  with  knee  bending  and  stretching,  6-8  times.  Repeat, 
leaving  the  floor  each  time  (combined  jump  and  pull-up). 

Jump,  grasp  rope  with  hands  and  feet,  L.  leg  in  front.  Repeat  with  R. 
leg  in  front.  (Climbing  pos.:  arms  straight,  hips  and  knees  bent.) 

Fall  hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  6-8  times. 

1/2  backw.  circle  of  body  between  two  ropes,  to  inverted  hanging  pos. 

Climbing  pos. :  arm  bending  and  stretching. 


APPENDIX  235 

Starting  6-8  feet  behind  the  vertical:  run,  spring  from  one  foot  (just 
before  ropes  pass  the  vertical),  grasp  as  high  as  possible  with  bent 
arms.  Dismount  immediately,  or  on  next  backw.  or  forw.  swing. 

Climbing  on  one  rope,  with  hands  and  feet. 

Hanging  pos.  on  two  ropes :  arm  bending  3  times. 

Hanging  pos.  on  two  ropes,  arms  bent :  alt.  knee  upw.  bending. 

Backw.  circle  of  body  between  two  ropes,  to  floor  (quick  movement,  body 
straight). 

Start  5-8  feet  behind  the  vertical :  swing  jump. 

Climbing  on  two  ropes,  with  hands  and  feet. 

Hanging  pos.  on  two  ropes,  arms  straight :  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  and 
stretching  forw. 

Prone  hanging  pos.,  arm  bending. 

Horizontal  (or  oblique)  climbing  from  rope  to  rope,  with  hands  and  feet. 

Hanging  pos.  on  two  ropes,  bent  arms :  alt.  arm  stretching  sidew. 

Hanging  pos.  on.  two  ropes,  straight  arms :  knee  upw.  bending  and 
stretching  forward. 

Vertical  climbing  on  one  rope,  with  hands  only. 

Inverted  hanging  pos.  on  one  rope  (grasps  with  hands  and  legs  as  in 
climbing  position). 

Climb  up,  retain  position  on  rope  without  use  of  hands. 

Vertical  climbing  on  two  ropes  with  hands  only. 

Swing  backw.,  then  forw.,  with  backw.  circle  to  floor. 

High  Horizontal  Bar. 

Jump  from  behind  bar:  short  underswing  (swing  jump). 

Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backw.  swing. 

Hanging  pos. :  arm  bending  2-3  times. 

Hanging  pos. :  alt.  knee  upw.  bending  10-12  times. 

Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing. 

Hanging  pos.,  pull  up,  throw  head  back,  raise  insteps  to  bar  between  hands, 

knees  bent. 

Hanging  pos. :  change  from  wide  to  narrow  grasp  3  times. 
Jump,  short  underswing  for  distance. 
Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backw.  swing  with   J4   L.   and  R. 

turn. 

Hanging  pos. :  knee  upw.  bending,  stretching  and  slow  sinking. 
Hanging  pos. :  pull  up,  raise  insteps  to  bar  outside  hands ;  knees  straight. 
Jump,  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing  with  l/4  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Hanging  pos. :  pass  feet  between  hands  to  inverted  hanging  pos. 
Hang  with  reverse  grasp,  start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backw.  swing. 
Short  underswing  with  J4  L.  and  R.  turn. 

Hang,  start  swing,  dismount  on  first  backw.  swing  with  Yz  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Hang  with  reverse  grasp ;  change  to  overgrasp.    Repeat  twice. 
Hang  hook  L.  knee  over  bar,  then  R.  knee. 

Hang  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing  with  J4  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Jump    from   behind   or   directly  under  bar,  backw.   circle   to    front   rest. 

Return  by  forw.  circle. 

Hang  with  reverse  grasp,  start  swing,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing. 
Running  start:  short  underswing  for  height  and  distance. 
Hang,  pull  up,  shoot  forw.  and  dismount. 
Hanging  pos. :  leg  raising  and  parting. 
Hang  with  L.  overgrasp,  R.  reverse  grasp;  start  swing,  dismount  on  first 

backw.  swing. 


236  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Hang  with  R.  overgrasp,  L.  reverse  grasp;  start  swing,  dismount  on  first 

backw.  swing. 
Hang,  hook  L.  knee  over  bar,  swing  R.  leg  backw.,  dismount  forw.  on 

return  swing.    Same  on  other  side. 

Hang,  backw.  circle  to  front  rest,  straight  knees.     Dismount  backw. 
Running  start:  short  underswing  with  %  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Hang,  start  swing;   on  first  backw.  swing  reverse  grasp  with   L.  hand, 

dismount  on  next  forw.  swing.    Repeat,  reversing  grasp  with  R.  hand. 
Hang,  pull  up,  pass  feet  between  hands  to  inverted  hanging  pos. ;  Ya  backw. 

circle  to  floor  (keeping  body  straight). 
Hang,  start  swing,  clap  hands  on  first  backw.  swing,  dismount  on  next 

forw.  swing. 
Hang,  hook  L.  knee  over  bar  outside  hand,  swing  up  to  riding  rest,  l/z  L. 

circle  L.  leg  to  front  rest;  forw.  circle  to  floor.    Same  on  other  side. 
Hang  with  combined  grasp ;  change  grasp  3  times. 
Hang,  pass  feet  outside  hands  to  knee  hanging  pos.,  swing  and  dismount 

by  J4  backw.  circle  to  floor  (with  assistance). 
Running  start :  short  underswing  with  l/2  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Hang  with  reverse  grasp,  start  swing;  on  first  backw.  swing  change  to 

overgrasp,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing. 
Hang,  hook  L.  knee  over  bar  outside  hand,  swing  up  to  riding  rest,  drop 

back,  on  next  backw.  swing  hook  R.  knee  and  dismount  by  l/t  backw. 

circle  to  floor.    Same  on  other  side. 
Hang,  pass  feet  between  hands  to  inverted  hanging  pos.,  pull  up  to  back 

rest,  dismount  forw. 
Hang,  hook  L.  knee  between  hands,  swing  up  to  riding  rest.     Drop  back 

and  dismount  with  short  underswing.     Same  on  other  side. 
Hang,  circle  bar  to  front  rest;  dismount  by  short  underswing. 
Hang,  start  swing,  on  next   forw.  swing  arch  back,  dismount  on  next 

backw.  swing. 
Hang,  pass  feet  between  hands,  quick  backw.  l/2  circle  to  floor  (shoot  for 

distance). 
Hang,  raise  toes  to  bar;  then  quickly  straighten  out  and  press  down  with 

(straight)   arms.     Repeat  with  swing  (the  "kip"). 
Start  swing;  on  next  forw.  swing  reverse  grasp  of  L.  hand;  dismount  on 

next  backward  swing  with  l/2  R.  turn.    Same  on  other  side. 
Start  swing;  L.  knee  upstart  (outside  hand)  to  riding  rest:  Yz  L.  circle 

R.  leg  to  back  rest;  backw.  circle  to  floor.     Same  on  other  side. 
Hang,  hook  L.  knee  between  hands,  swing  up  to  riding  rest ;  drop  back 

with  L.  heel  to  bar,  knee  straight;  pass  R.  foot  between  hands,  on 

return  swing  shoot  over  bar  to  floor.     Same  on  other  side. 
Backw.  circle  to  front  rest;  long  underswing  with  back  arched,  raise  legs 

and  "kip"  to  front  rest;  forw.  circle  to  floor. 
Easy  swing,  pass  feet  between  hands  to  momentary  inverted  pos.,  quick 

pull-up  to  back  rest;  ^2  L.  turn  and  dismount  with  short  underswing. 

Repeat,  turning  R.  from  back  rest. 
With  L.  overgrasp,  R.  reverse  grasp  start  swing,  on  next  forw.  swing  ^2 

L.  turn,  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing.     Same  on  other  side. 
Swing,  L.  knee  upstart   (between  hands)   to  riding  rest;  backw.  L.  knee 

circle;   drop  back  and   dismount  with   short  underswing.     Same   on 

other  side. 

Backw.  circle  to  front  rest;  side  vault  L.  and  R.  to  floor. 
Start  swing;   on  next  forw.   swing  hook  both  knees  outside  hands,  on 

return  swing  straighten  body  with  arms  overhead  and  Vz  backward 

circle  to  floor. 
Jump  from  behind  bar,  backw.  circle  over  bar  to  floor. 


APPENDIX  237 

Start  swing;  on  next  forw.  swing  l/2  L.  turn;  dismount  on  next  forw. 

swing.    Same  with  ^-2  R.  turn  at  end  of  forw.  swing. 
Swing,  L.  knee  upstart   (between  hands)   to  riding  rest;   reverse  grasp, 

forw.  knee  circle;  H  L-  circle  of  R.  leg  to  back  rest;  dismount  forw. 

Same  on  other  side. 
Backw.  circle  to  front  rest;  l/2  R.  circle  of  L.  leg,  l/2  L.  circle  of  R.  leg 

to  back  rest;  l/2  L.  turn  and  dismount  with  short  underswing.     Same 

on  other  side. 
L.  knee  upstart  (outside  hand)  to  front  rest;  backw.  circle  to  front  rest; 

dismount  backw.     Same  on  other  side. 
With  L.  reverse  grasp,  R.  overgrasp,  start  swing,  on  next  backw.  swing 

l/2  R.  turn,  dismount  on  next  backw.  swing.     Same  with  L.  and  R. 

reversed. 
Swing,  L.  knee  upstart,  between  hands,  l/t  L.  circle  of  R.  leg  with  l/z  L. 

turn  and  short  underswing  dismount.     Same  on  other  side. 
Start  swing,  on  next  swing  hook  both  knees  outside  hands,  upstart  to 

back  rest;  backw.  circle  to  floor. 
Backw.  circle  to  front  re^t;  l/t  L.  or  R.  circle  of  both  legs  to  back  rest, 

drop  back  with  heels  to  bar;  on  return  swing  shoot  over  bar  to  floor. 
Swing,  pass  feet  between  hands  to  back  rest ;  dismount  forw. 
Backw.  circle  to  front  rest;  free  backw.  circle  to  floor. 
Jump   from  behind  bar,  arch  strongly,  upstart  to   front  rest,  with  bent 

arms  ("breast  up"). . 
Reverse  grasp,  start  swing,  on  next  backw.  swing  Y2  L.  turn,  dismount  on 

next  backw.  swing.    Same  with  l/2  R.  turn  at  end  of  backw.  swing. 
L.  knee  upstart,  outside  hand,  Y2  L.  circle  of  R.  leg;  backw.  knee  circle 

(hock  swing)  to  floor.    Same  on  other  side. 
From  behind  bar,  free  backw.  circle  to  floor. 
L.  knee  upstart,  between  hands,  l/2  L.  circle  R.  leg  to  back  rest,  reverse 

grasp,  heels  to  bar,  forward  circle  to  sitting  position,  l/t  L.  turn,  short 

underswing  dismount.     Same  on  other  side. 
Backw.  circle  to  front  rest;  drop  back  with  toes  to  bar,  "kip"  to  front 

rest,  dismount  backw. 
"Kip,"  and  free  backw.  circle  to  floor. 
Start  swing,  on  next  forw.  swing  l/2  L.  turn;  on  next  forw.  swing  ^  R. 

turn;  dismount  on  next  forw.  swing. 
Reverse  grasp,  start  swing,  on  next  backw.  swing  ]/2  R.  turn,  on  next 

backw.  swing  l/t  L.  turn ;  dismount  on  next  backw.  swing. 
Start  swing,  hook  both  knees  outside  hands,  swing  up  to  sitting  pos.,  hands 

between  legs,  reverse  grasp  and  forw.  circle  to  floor. 
Swing,  uprise  to  free  front  rest,  short  underswing. 
L.  overgrasp,  R.  reverse  grasp,  "kip"  to  front  rest,  L.  face  vault  dismount. 

Same  on  other  side. 
Swing,  pass  feet  between  hands,  shoot  over  bar  to  back  rest ;  backw.  knee 

circle  to  back  rest,  drop  back,  pass  feet  between  hands  and  dismount 

with  short  underswing. 

"Kip" ;  forward  circle  to  front  rest,  side  vault  L.  or  R.  to  floor. 
Swing,  L.  knee  upstart  between  hands ;  reverse  grasp  of  L.  hand ;  knee  and 

instep  circle ;  dismount  with  short  underswing.     Same  on  other  side. 
Swing,  uprise  to  free  front  rest,  free  backw.  circle,  long  underswing.  pass 

feet  between  hands,  hook  knees,  H  backw.  circle  to  floor. 
Swing,  L.  knee  upstart  between  hands  to  momentary  riding  rest,  quick 

Yz  R.  turn,  backw.  R.  knee  circle,  drop  back,  pass  R.   foot  between 

hands  and  dismount.     Same  on  other  side! 
Start  swing,  on  next  forw.   swing  pass   feet  between  hands,   l/2  backw. 

circle  to  back  rest  (back  upstart). 


238  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Low  Horizontal  Bar. 

Free  front  rest. 

Preparation  for  side  (flank)  vault:  swing  legs  L.  and  R.  twice. 

Preparation  for  squat  vault  and  straddle  vault   (toes  to  bar  inside  and 

outside  of  hands). 
Reverse  grasp:  circle  forw.  to  sitting  pos.  on  floor;  swing  up  to  standing 

pos.  on  far  side  of  bar. 
Short  underswing,  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Front  rest;  dismount  backw.  (with  J4  L.  and  R.  turn). 
Low  side  (flank)  vault  L.,  touching  bar  with  left  foot,  and  landing  with 

J4  R.  turn.     Same  on  other  side. 
Squat  mount;  dismount  forw. 
Front  rest;  slow  circle  forw.  to  fall  hanging  pos.;  swing  up  to  standing 

pos. 

Short  underswing  (from  both  feet): 
Mount  to  back  rest,  turning  L.,  then  R.    Dismount  forw.  without  and  with 

turns.  • 

Low  side  vault  L.  and  R. 

With  L.  overgrasp,  R.  reverse  grasp,  (low)   face  vault  L. 
With  R.  overgrasp,  L.  reverse  grasp,   (low)    face  vault  R. 
From  L.  foot:  backw.  circle  over  bar  to  front  rest;  dismount  backw. 
From  R.  foot :  backw.  circle  over  bar  to  front  rest ;  dismount  backw. 
Back  rest  by  L.  and  R.  turn;  roll  over  backw.  to  standing  pos.  on  near 

side  of  bar. 

Short  underswing  from  full  reach  behind  bar. 
Side  (flank)  vault  L.  with  YA,  R.  turn. 
Side  (flank)  vault  R.  with  J4  L-  turn. 
Back  vault  L.  and  R. 

Backw.  circle  to  front  rest ;  return  by  forw.  circle. 
Jump,  catch  bar,  short  underswing. 
Front  rest :  short  underswing. 

With  L.  side  to  the  bar :  oblique  vault  from  R.  foot. 
With  R.  side  to  the  bar :  oblique  vault  from  L.  foot. 
Fence  vault,  L.  or  R. 
Squat  vault. 

Yz  squat  YZ  straddle  mount  L.  and  R. 

Yi  L.  and  R.  circle  of  both  legs  to  back  rest;  dismount  forw. 
Jump,  hook  L.  knee  outside  hand,  drop  back,  swing  up,  Y*  L.  circle  L.  leg 

to  floor.    Same  on  other  side. 

Jump,  catch  bar,  short  underswing  with  Y*  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Side  vault  L.  with  J-4  L.  turn. 
Side  vault  R.  with  YA  R-  turn. 
Straddle  vault. 
Yt  R.  circle  L.  leg,  Yz  L.  circle  R.  leg  to  back  rest;   (with  hands  on  bar) 

backw.  knee  circle  to  floor. 

Front  rest :  backw.  circle  to  front  rest ;  dismount  with  short  underswing. 
Hang  with  heels  on  bar,  between  hands;  swing  and  shoot  up  over  bar  to 

floor. 
Yi  R-  circle  L.  leg,  Y*  L.  circle  R.  leg  to  back  rest ;  drop  back  with  heels  to 

bar,  on  return  swing  shoot  up  to  back  rest;  dismount  forw. 
Fence  vault,  L.  or  R.,  for  height. 
Squat  vault  with  Y*  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Combined  grasp ;  face  vault  L.  with  J4  R-  turn. 
Combined  grasp;  face  vault  R.  with  Y*  L.  turn. 


APPENDIX  239 

Jump,  hook  L.  knee  between  hands,  drop  back,  swing  up,  l/2  L.  circle  of  R. 

leg  with  J4  L-  turn  of  body  to  floor.     Same  on  other  side. 
Yz  L.  circle  L.  leg  to  riding  rest;  backw.  L.  knee  circle;  drop  back,  dis- 
mount with  short  underswing.    Same  on  other  side. 
Back  vault  L.  with  J4  L.  turn. 
Back  vault  R.  with  J4  R-  turn. 
Side  vault  L.  with  Y*  R.  turn. 
Side  vault  R.  with  ^  L.  turn. 
Jump  to  back  rest;  backw.  knee  circle,  drop  back,  on  return  swing  shoot 

over  bar  to  floor. 

Free  backw.  circle  to  floor  (bar  at  height  of  chest). 
Squat  vault  with  Y*  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Straddle  vault  with  Y\,  L-  and  R.  turn. 
Standing  pos.  with  one  foot  raised  to  bar  (between  hands)  ;  drop  back, 

raise  other  leg,  "kip"  (or  begin  by  swinging  L.  leg  up,  then  R.). 
Back  vault  L.  with  Yz  L.  turn.    Same  R.  with  Yz  R.  turn. 
Straddle  vault  with  Y*  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Jump  with  insteps  to  bar  between  hands,  drop  back,  "kip." 
Backw.  circle  to  front  rest;   Yz  R.  circle  L.  leg,  reverse  grasp,  forw.  L. 

knee  circle.     Same  on  other  side. 
Combined  grasp,  side  vault  L.  with  Y*  R-  turn,  quick  change  of  grasp  with 

L.  hand  and  short  underswing.    Same  on  other  side. 
Jump  with  feet  to  bar,  outside  hands,  drop  back,  short  underswing. 
Run  under  bar,  "kip." 
Free  backw.  circle  and  short  underswing. 
Jump,  hook  both  knees  outside  L.  hand;  backw.  knee  circle;   dismount 

forw.     Same  on  other  side. 
Jump  to  sitting  pos.,  knees  straight;  reverse  grasp,  forw.  knee  circle  to 

floor. 

Front  rest :  forw.  circle  to  front  rest ;  dismount  backw. 
Yz  L.  circle  of  both  legs  to  sitting  pos.  with  L.  hand  between  legs ;  backw. 
knee  circle;  L.  hand  outside,  drop  back,  short  underswing.     Same  on 

other  side. 
Jump  with  feet  to  bar  outside  hands,  short  underswing  with  Y*  L-  and  R. 

turn. 
Yi  R.  circle  L.  leg  to  riding  rest,  drop  back,  pass  R.  foot  between  hands 

and  shoot  up  over  bar  to  floor.    Same  on  other  side. 
From  full  reach :  short  underswing  and  "kip." 
Grasp  bar,  drop  back,  L.  knee  upstart  between  hands,  reverse  grasp  with 

L.  hand;  knee-and-instep  circle  forward;  dismount  forw.  with  YA,  L- 

turn.     Same  on  other  side. 

Front  rest,  drop  back,  "kip,"  side  vault  L.  and  R. 
Three  double  knee  circles  backw.,  with  hands  first  outside  L.  leg,  then 

outside  R.  leg,  then  legs  between  hands;  drop  back,  shoot  up  (clearing 

bar)  to  floor. 
Combined  grasp,  L.  circle  R.  leg  with  */2  L.  turn  of  body  to  sitting  pos., 

hands  between  legs ;  backw.  knee  circle,  then  backw.  body  circle  to 

floor.    Same  with  R.  circle  of  L.  leg  and  Y*.  R-  turn. 

L.  overgrasp  R.  reverse  grasp,  "kip,"  change  grasp  R.  hand,  short  under- 
swing.   Repeat  with  R.  and  L.  reversed. 
Backw.  circle  to  front  rest,  drop  back,  "kip,"  to  front  rest,   YL  turn  to 

back  rest,  drop  back,  pass  feet  between  hands  and  short  underswing. 
With  narrow  grasp :  short  underswing,  raise  legs,  pass  feet  outside  hands 

and  mount  to  sitting  pos.,  hands  between  legs,  drop  back,  pass  feet  in 

front  of  bar  and  "kip." 


240  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Jump  to  riding  rest,  L.  leg  in  front  (and  between  hands)  :  L.  backw.  knee 
circle,  drop  back,  pass  R.  foot  between  hands  and  mount  to  sitting 
pos.,  Yt  L.  turn  to  front  rest,  forw.  circle  to  front  rest;  dismount 
backw.  Repeat  with  R.  and  L.  reversed,  and  finishing  with  free 
backw.  circle  and  short  underswing. 

Jump  with  feet  to  bar  (wide  apart),  grasp  and  short  underswing. 

Side  Horse  (with  Pommels}. 

Squat  mount;  dismount  forw. 

Straddle  mount;  dismount  forw. 

Free  front  rest. 

l/2  squat  l/2  straddle  mount  L.  and  R. 

Low  side  (flank)  vault  L.  over  L.  end  of  horse  (R.  hand  on  pommel,  L. 

hand  on  horse).    Same  on  other  side. 
Mount  to  kneeling  pos.,  dismount  forw. 
Knee  vault. 
Squat  vault. 

Straddle  mount;  dismount  forw.  with  Yz  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Squat  vault  with  J4  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Yi  squat  Yz  straddle  vault  L.  and  R.  over  ends. 
Low  face  vault  L.  and  R.  over  ends    (one  hand  on  pommel,  other  on 

horse). 

Straddle  vault. 

1/2  squat  Yt  straddle  vault  L.  and  R.  over  saddle. 
Low  side  vault  (flank)  L.  with  %  R.  turn,  over  L.  end.    Repeat  with  R. 

and  L.  reversed. 
Back  vault  L.  and  R. 
Knee  vault  with  %  L.  and  R.  turn. 

Face  vault  L.  and  R.  over  saddle  (preferably  with  hands  on  horse). 
Jump  vault  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
l/t  squat  Y*  straddle  vault  L.  with  J4  R-  turn,  over  saddle.     Repeat  with 

R.  and  L.  reversed. 

Side  (flank)  vault  L.  and  R.  over  saddle  (hands  on  pommels). 
Face   vault   L.   to   riding  pos.   on   L.   end.     Face    (vault)    dismount   L. 

(hands  on  pommel). 
Face  vault  R.  to  riding  position  on  R.  end.     Face   (vault)   dismount  R. 

(hands  on  pommel). 

Oblique  vault  from  L.  foot  (R.  hand  on  R.  end).     Same  on  other  side. 
Y*  squat  Yz  straddle  vault  L.  with  Y*  L.  turn,  over  saddle.    Same  on  other 

side. 
Jump  vault  from  L.  foot,  with  J4  R-  (and  L.)  turn.    Repeat  with  R.  and 

L.  reversed. 

Back  vault  L.,  with  54  L.  (inside)  turn.    Same  on  other  side. 
Side  vault  L.  with  54  R-  turn. 
Side  vault  R.  with  54  L.  turn. 
Face  vault  L.  with  54  R-  turn. 
Face  vault  R.  with  54  L.  turn. 

Yi  squat  J4  straddle  vault  L.  with  Y*  R-  turn,  over  neck. 
Yi  squat  Y*  straddle  vault  R.  with  ^  L.  turn,  over  croup. 
Oblique  vault  from  L.  foot  (R.  hand  on  horse)  with  %  L.  (inside)  turn. 
Oblique  vault  from  R.  foot  (L.  hand  on  horse)  with  54  R-  (inside)  turn. 
Back  vault  L.  to  riding  pos.  on  L.  end  of  horse.    Back  (vault)  dismount  R. 
Back  vault  R.  to  riding  pos.  on  R.  end  of  horse.    Back  (vault)  dismount  L. 
Face  vault  L.  with  Yt  R.  turn." 


APPENDIX  241 

Face  vault  R.  with  l/t  L.  turn. 

l/2  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  L.  with  l/2  R.  turn,  over  saddle. 

Yi  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  R.  with  l/2  L.  turn,  over  saddle. 

Jump  vault  from  L.  foot,  with  l/2  R.  (and  Yt  L.)  turn. 

Jump  vault  from  R.  foot,  with  l/2  L.  (and  l/2  R.)  turn. 

Straddle  vault  with  Yz  L.  and  R.  turn. 

Side  vault  L.  with  J4  L-  turn.    Same  on  other  side. 

L.  hand  squat  mount;  dismount  with  24  L-  turn.    Same  on  other  side. 

Back  vault  L.  with  Yi  L.  (inside)  turn.    Same  on  other  side. 

Front  vault.     ("Sheep  vault".     Chest  leading,  feet  last  over  horse.) 

Pike  dive. 

Oblique  vault  from  L.  foot  with  Yi  L.  (inside)  turn.    Same  on  other  side. 

Y2  squat  Yi  straddle  vault  L.  with  Yt  L.  turn  over  end.    Same  on  other  side. 

Oblique  vault  from  L.  foot  with  ^>  R.  (outside)  turn   (support  with  R. 

hand  only). 
Oblique  vault  from  R.  foot  with   l/2  L.   (outside)  turn   (support  with  L. 

hand  only). 

L.  hand  straddle  mount;  dismount  with  ^  L.  turn.     Same  on  other  side. 
Front  vault  with  Yi  L-  and  R.  turn. 
Yz  squat  YL  straddle  vault  L.  with  Y*  L.  turn,  over  saddle.    Same  on  other 

side. 

One  hand  side  vault  L.  and  R. 
Rear  straddle  mount,  turning  L.  and  R. 
L.  and  R.  hand  squat  vault. 

High  face  vault  L.  and  R.   (through  handstand). 
Rear  straddle  vault,  turning  L.  and  R. 
L.  and  R.  hand  straddle  vault. 
High  squat  vault   (through  handstand). 
One  hand  side  vault  L.  with  J4  'R.  turn. 
One  hand  side  vault  R.  with  Y$  L.  turn. 
High  straddle  vault  (through  handstand). 
Hand  spring,  slow  and  quick. 

Buck. 

Free  front  rest. 

Straddle  vault. 

Yi  squat  Yt,  straddle  mount  L.  and  R. 

Knee  vault. 

Low  side  (flank)  vault  L.  and  R. 

Squat  mount,  dismount  forw.    Repeat  with  rising  dismount. 

Straddle  vault  for  distance. 

Jump  from  L.  foot  to  standing  pos.  on  R.  foot;  dismount  forw. 

Jump  from  R.  foot  to  standing  pos.  on  L.  foot ;  dismount  forw. 

Yi  knee  Yi  straddle  vault  L.  and  R. 

Straddle  vault  with  Y*  L.  and  R.  turn.       , 

Yz  squat  Yz  straddle  vault  L.  and  R. 

Squat  mount;  rising  dismount  forw.  with  side-flinging  of  arms  and  legs. 

Low  face  vault  L.  and  R. 

Jump  from  L.  and  R.  foot  to  standing  pos.   (on  both  feet)  ;  dismount, 

touching  toes  in  air. 
Back  vault  L.  and  R.  • 

Straddle  vault  with  Yz  L-  and  R.  turn. 
Squat  vault. 

Yi  squat  Yi  straddle  vault  L.,  with  J4  R-  turn. 
Y2  squat  J^  straddle  vault  R.,  with  Y*  L.  turn. 


242  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Side  (flank)  vault  L.  with  J4  R-  turn. 
Side  (flank)  vault  R.  with  %  L.  turn. 
Jump  (clear)  over  buck,  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Straddle  vault  for  height. 
Back  vault  L.  with  J4  L-  turn. 
Back  vault  R.  with  %  R.  turn. 
Squat  vault  with  J4  L.  and  R.  turn. 
l/2  squat  l/t  straddle  vault  L.  with  J4  L-  turn. 
l/2  squat  ]/2  straddle  vault  R.  with  %  R.  turn. 
Oblique  vault  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Face  vault  L.  with  J4  R-  turn. 
Face  vault  R.  with  J4  L.  turn. 
L.  hand  straddle  vault. 
R.  hand  straddle  vault. 

l/2  squat  l/t  straddle  vault  L.  with  Yz  R.  turn. 
*/2  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  R.  with  y3  L.  turn.  9 

Side  vault  L.  with  J4  L.  turn. 
Side  vault  R.  with  J4  R.  turn. 
Back  vault  L.,  with  l/2  L.  turn. 
Back  vault  R.,  with  ^  R.  turn. 
Oblique  vault  from  L.  foot  with  J4  L.  turn. 
Oblique  vault  from  R.  foot  with  J4  R-  turn. 

Vault  to  kneeling  pos.,  spring  to  standing  pos.,  dismount  forward. 
Side  straddle  vault  L.  and  R.  (buck  lengthwise). 
Squat  vault  with  l/2  L.  and  R.  turn. 
L.  hand  straddle  vault  with  J4  L-  turn. 
R.  hand  straddle  vault  with  %  R-  turn. 
Jump  vault  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Face  vault  L.  with  H  R-  turn. 
Face  vault  R.  with  Y*  L.  turn. 

Oblique  vault  from  L.  foot  with  ^  R-  turn  (support  on  R.  hand  only). 
Oblique  vault  from  R.  foot  with  }4  L.  turn  (support  on  L.  hand  only). 
Rear  straddle  mount,  L.  or  R.  (buck  lengthwise). 
Jump  vault  from  L.  foot  with  J4  L.  turn. 
Jump  vault  from  R.  foot  with  %  R.  turn. 
Straddle  vault  with  ^  L.  and  R.  turn. 
Oblique  vault  from  L.  foot  with  l/2  L.  turn. 
Oblique  vault  from  R.  foot  with  l/2  R.  turn. 
L.  hand  straddle  vault  with  Y*  R.  turn. 
R.  hand  straddle  vault  with  J4  L-  turn. 
l/2  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  L.  with  l/t  L.  turn. 
l/2  squat  l/2  straddle  vault  R.  with  Y2  R.  turn. 
Jump  vault  from  L.  foot  with  Ya,  R.  turn. 
Jump  vault  from  R.  foot  with  *A  L.  turn. 
Back  vault  L.  with  l/2  L.  turn. 
Back  vault  R.  with  l/2  R.  turn. 
Pike  dive. 

Rear  straddle  vault,  turning  L.  and  R. 

Oblique  vault  from  L.  foot  with  l/2  R.  turn  (support  on  R.  hand  only). 
Oblique  vault  from  R.  foot  with  l/2  L.  turn  (support  on  L.  hand  only). 
R.  hand  low  side  vault  L. 
L.  hand  low  side  vault  R.  • 

Jump  vault  from  L.  foot  with  l/t  L.  turn. 
Jump  vault  from  R.  foot  with  ^  R.  turn. 

Front  vault   ("Sheep"  vault.     Body  arched;  chest  leading,  feet  last  over 
buck). 


APPENDIX  243 

L.  hand  straddle  vault  with  l/2  L.   (and  R.)  turn. 

R.  hand  straddle  vault  with  l/2  R.  (and  L.)  turn. 

Side  vault  L.  with  J4  L.  turn. 

Side  vault  R.  with  J4  R-  turn. 

Squat  vault  with  34  L.  and  R.  turn. 

Rear  straddle  vault  L.  with  J4  L-  turn. 

Rear  straddle  vault  R.  with  J4  R-  turn. 

Front  vault  with  J4  L-  turn. 

Front  vault  with  J4  R-  turn. 

R.  hand  side  vault  L.  with  J4  R-  turn. 

L.  hand  side  vault  R.  with  J4  L.  turn. 

Rear  squat  vault,  turning  L.  and  R. 

Cross-legged  straddle  vault,  L.  leg  in  front   (hips  turned,  but  shoulders 

square  to  the  front). 
Cross-legged  straddle  vault,  R.  leg  in  front   (hips  turned,  but  shoulders 

square  to  the  front). 
Rear  squat  vault  L.  with  ^  L-  turn. 
Rear  squat  vault  R.  with  %  R-  turn. 
Rear  straddle  vault  L.  with  l/2  L.  turn. 
Rear  straddle  vault  R.  with  Yz  R.  turn. 
High  face  vault  L.  and  R.  (through  handstand). 
Straddle  vault  with  full  L.  and  R.  turn. 
High  squat  vault  (through  handstand). 
High  straddle  vault   (through  handstand). 
Hand  spring,  slow  or  quick. 

Parallel  Bars. 

(Unless  otherwise  specified  the  exercises  are  done  with  a  running  start, 
from  end  of  bars,  mounting  well  in  toward  middle.) 

Back  rest  on  L.  bar;  dismount  forw.    Same  on  R.  bar. 

Riding  pos. ;  face  (vault)  dismount  L.  and  R. 

Oblique  back  rest  on  L.  bar;  back  (vault)  dismount  L.    Same  on  R.  bar. 

Riding  pos.;  swing  forw.  between  bars  to  back  (vault)  dismount  L.  and  R. 

Back  vault  L.  and  R. 

Back  rest  on  L.  bar;  dismount  forw.  with  l/2  L.  turn.    Same  on  other  side. 

Riding  pos.;  swing  backw.  between  bars  to  face  (vault)  dismount  L.  and  R. 

Oblique  back  rest  on  L.  bar;  back  (vault)  dismount  L.  with  J4  R-  turn. 

Oblique  back  rest  on  R.  bar;  back  (vault)   dismount  R.  with  ]/$  L.  turn. 

Oblique  back  rest  on  L.  bar;  turn  R.  to  cross  riding  pos.     Face  (vault) 

dismount  L. 
Oblique  back  rest  on  R.  bar;  turn  L.  to  cross  riding  pos.    Face  (vault) 

dismount  R. 

Travel  forw.  through  riding  pos.  on  both  bars. 

At  ends  of  bars :  L.  circle  L.  leg  to  floor,  then  R.  circle  R.  leg  to  floor. 
Back  vault  L.  with  %  R.  turn. 
Back  vault  R.  with  54  L.  turn. 

Oblique  back  rest  on  L.  bar;  back  (vault)  dismount  R.  over  both  bars. 
Oblique  back  rest  on  R.  bar;  back  (vault)  dismount  L.  over  both  bars. 
Oblique  back  rest  on  L.  bar;  turn  R.  to  front  rest,  hands  on  R.  bar; 

dismount  backw.     Same  on  othep  side. 

Swing  forw.,  then  backw.,  to  face  (vault)  dismount  L.  and  R. 
Travel  backw.  through  riding  pos.  on  both  bars. 
At  ends  of  bars :  R.  circle  L.  leg  over  L.  bar  to  floor,  then  L.  circle  R.  leg 

over  R.  bar  to  floor. 


244  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Back  vault  L.  with  l/3  R.  turn. 

Back  vault  R.  with  l/2  L.  turn. 

Y*  L.  circle  R.  leg  over  L.  bar,  Y3  R.  circle  L.  leg  over  L.  bar,  with  % 

R.  turn  of  body  to  front  rest.    Dismount  backw.    Same  on  other  side. 
H  L.  circle  R.  leg  over  L.  bar  (cut  L.  hand)  with  y*  R.  circle  L.  leg  to 

oblique  front  rest  on  L.  bar,  face  dismount  L.     Same  on  other  side. 
Travel  forw.  through  oblique  back  rest  on  L.  and  R.  bars  successively, 

swinging  forw.  between  bars  each  time. 
At  ends  of  bars :  L.  circle  of  both  legs  over  L.  bar  to  floor,  then  R.  circle 

of  both  legs  over  R.  bar  to  floor. 

Back  vault  L.  with  y^  L.  turn   (pivoting  on  L.  hand). 
Back  vault  R.  with  J4  R.  turn  (pivoting  on  R.  hand). 
Back  rest  on  L.  bar,  roll  over  backw.  to  floor.     Same  on  other  bar. 
Travel  forw.  through  cross-legged  riding  pos.  on  both  bars  ("grapevine"). 
At  ends  of  bars :  L.  circle  R.  leg  over  L.  bar  to  floor,  then  R.  circle  L.  leg 

over  R.  bar  to  floor. 
Oblique  front  rest  on  L.  bar;  swing  forw.  between  bars  to  back  (vault) 

dismount  R. 
Oblique  front  rest  on  R.  bar;  swing  forw.  between  bars  to  back  (vault) 

dismount  L. 

Upper  arm  rest,  raise  legs,  swing  backw.  and  dismount  between  bars. 
Upper  arm  rest,  raise  legs  and  mount  to  oblique  back  rest  on  L.  bar,  back 

(vault)  dismount  L.  with  J4  R-  turn.    Same  on  other  side. 
y2  L.  circle  R.  leg  (with  y*  R.  circle  L.  leg)  over  L.  bar  to  face  (vault) 

dismount  L.  (cut  L.  hand). 
y.  R.  circle  L.  leg  (with  }4  R.  circle  L.  leg)  over  R.  bar  to  face  (vault) 

dismount  R.  (cut  R.  hand). 
Upper  arm  rest,  raise  legs,  mount  to  riding  pos.     Face  vault  dismount 

R.  and  L. 

Face  vault  L.  and  R.  (without  preliminary  forw.  swing). 
Swing  forw.;  L.  circle  R.  leg  over  L.  bar   (cut  L.  hand),  swing  forw. 

between  bars  to  back   (vault)   dismount  R.  with  y*  L.  turn.     Same 

on  other  side. 
Riding  pos.,  shoulder  stand:   roll  over  forw.  to  upper  arm  rest,  swing 

backw.  and  dismount  between  bars. 
Upper  arm  rest,  raise  legs,  upstart  ("kip"),  swing  backw.  and  face  (vault) 

dismount  R.  or  L. 
At  ends  of  bars :  R.  circle  L.  leg  over  both  bars  with  simultaneous  R. 

circle  R.  leg  over  R.  bar  to  floor.    Same  on  other  side. 
Swing   forw.  and  backw.    (increasing  momentum),  on  next   forw.  swing 

side  vault  L.  over  R.  bar  (body  straight).    Same  on  other  side. 
Swing  forw.,  L.  circle  R.  leg  over  L.  bar  (cut  L.  hand)  and  face  (vault) 

dismount  R.  over  R.  bar. 
Swing  forw.,  R.  circle  L.  leg  over  R.  bar  (cut  L.  hand)  and  face  (vault) 

dismount  L.  over  L.  bar. 
Swing  forw.,  then  backw.  to  shoulder  stand,  l/2  circle  straight  sidew.  to 

floor.     Same  on  other  side. 
l/2   L.  circle  R.  leg  over  L.  bar,  R.  circle  L.  leg  over  L.  bar,  with   54 

R.  turn  to  back  rest.     Roll  over  backw.  to  floor.     Same  on  other  side. 
Upper  arm   rest,   raise   legs,   on   backw.   swing  uprise  to   cross   rest   and 

immediate  back  (vault)  dismount  L.  or  R. 
At  ends:  R.  circle  R.  leg  over  both  bars  .with  simultaneous  R.  circle  L. 

leg  over  L.  bar  to  floor.    Same  on  other  side. 
Side  vault  L.  and  R.  (on  first  forw.  swing). 


APPENDIX  245 

Swing  forw.,  L.  circle  L.  leg  over  L.  bar  (cut  L.  hand),  swing  forw.,  R. 

circle  R.  leg  over  R.  bar    (cut  R.   hand),   swing   forw.,  back  vault 

dismount  L.  or  R. 
Upper  arm  hang;  start  swing,  on  second  forw.  swing  l/2  backw.  circle  to 

shoulder  stand;  l/2  backw.  circle  to  back  (vault)  dismount  R.  or  L. 
Swing    forw.,    then   backw.,    then    drop    to   upper    arm    rest   and    "kip," 

immediate  face  (vault)  dismount  L.  or  R. 
At  ends :  L.  circle  L.  leg  over  L.  bar  with  simultaneous  R.  circle  R.  leg 

over  R.  bar  to  floor  (cut  both  hands  simultaneously). 
At  ends :  R.  circle  L.  leg  over  L.  bar  with  simultaneous  L.  circle  R.  leg 

over  R.  bar  to  floor  (cut  both  hands  simultaneously). 
From  side  of  bars :  side  vault  L.  with  Y$  R.  turn  and  L.  hand  on  other  bar, 

swing  forw.  between  bars  and  back  vault  dismount  L.  with   Yt   L. 

turn.     Same  on  other  side. 
From  side  of  bars :  combined  grasp  on  near  bar,  drop  back  and  shoot  up 

between  bars  with  Y*  R.  turn  of  body  to  cross  riding  rest,  hands  in 

front;  swing  forw.  between  bars  and  backw.  shoulder  roll.    Dismount 

between  bars. 
From  side  of  bars :   overgrasp  on  far  bar  with   arms  under  near  bar : 

backw.  circle  to  front  rest,  hands  on  far  bar;  dismount  backw. 
Swing    forw.,   then   backw.,   to   handstand;    swing   forw.   to   back   vault 

dismount  R.  or  L. 
From    far    end    of    bars:    upper    arm    rest    (facing    mid-bars);    backw. 

shoulder  roll  to  floor. 
From  far  end  of  bars :  riding  pos.  facing  ends :  forw.  shoulder  spring  to 

floor. 

From  far  end  of  bars:  grasp  ends,  drop  back  with  legs  raised,  "kip";  dis- 
mount backw. 

From  near  end  of  bars :  back  vault  L.  over  both  bars. 
From  near  end  of  bars :  back  vault  R.  over  both  bars. 
L.  circle  R.  leg  over  L.  bar  (cut  L.  hand),  L.  circle  R.  leg  over  R.  bar 

(cut  R.  hand)   and  back   (vault)   dismount  L.  over  L.  bar.     Same  on 

other  side. 
Mount  to  riding  rest,  facing  near  end  of  bars :  drop  to  upper  arm  rest 

with   long  underswing  between   bars,   two  backw.   shoulder   rolls   to 

shoulder  stand,  "kip,"  face   (vault)   dismount  with  turn. 
Swing  forw.,  then  backw.,  to  handstand ;  drop  to  shoulder  stand ;   forw. 

roll  to  riding  rest  on  one  bar,  back  (vault)  dismount  over  other  bar. 
Upper  arm  rest,  "kip,"  to  oblique  back  rest  on  L.  bar;  J4  R-  turn  to  front 

rest;  side  vault  L.  over  both  bars  to  floor.     Same  on  other  side. 
From  far  end  of  bars    (facing  in):  underswing,   "kip,"  shoulder  stand; 

backw.  shoulder  roll  to  floor. 
Upper  arm  rest:  start  swing,  on  backw.  swing  ^2  (forw.)  circle  to  shoulder 

stand,  forw.  roll,  on  backw.  swing  uprise  and  back  (vault)  dismount 

L.  (or  R.). 
Swing  forw.  and  backw.,  on  next  forw.  swing  drop  back  with  legs  raised, 

"kip,"  on  next  forw.  swing  cut  both  hands  and  back  vault  dismount 

L.  (or  R.). 
At  ends  of  bars:  R.  circle  both  legs  over  both  bars  to  floor;  L.  circle  both 

legs  over  both  bars  to  floor. 

Swing  forw.,  L.  circle  R.  leg  over  L.  bar  (cut  L.  hand),  followed  imme- 
diately by  R.  circle  L.  leg  over  L.  and  R.  bars   (cut  first  L.,  then  R. 

hand),  then  L.  circle  R.  leg  over  R.  bar  to  back  (vault)  dismount  L. 

Repeat  with  R.  and  L.  reversed. 


246  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

At  near  end:  R.  circle  L.  leg  over  L.  bar  with  simultaneous  L.  circle  R. 
leg  over  R.  bar,  swing  backw.  to  shoulder  stand  and  forw.  shoulder 
roll  to  riding  pos. ;  forw.  circle  between  bars  (resting  on  thighs)  back 
to  riding  pos.;  forw.  shoulder  roll  (arms  straight  sideways)  over  far 
end  to  floor. 

Handstand,  walk  forw.,  drop  down  to  shoulder  stand,  forw.  shoulder 
roll,  on  backw.  swing  uprise  to  riding  pos. ;  back  vault  dismount. 

Swing  forw.,  then  backw.,  R.  circle  both  legs  over  both  bars  with  l/+  R- 
turn  to  floor.  Same  on  other  side. 

Upper  arm  rest,  start  swing,  on  backw.  swing  uprise  and  shoulder  stand, 
"kip"  and  shoulder  stand,  backw.  shoulder  roll,  "kip"  and  face  dis- 
mount R.  or  L. 


High  Jumps. 

(Height  of  bar  about  3  feet.) 
Run,  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  facing  forw. 
Run,  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  facing  forw. 
Run,  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  with  ^4  L-  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  with  J4  R-  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  with  %  R.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  with  J4  L.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  both  feet,  land  facing  forw. 
Run,  jump  from  both  feet,  land  with  %  L.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  both  feet,  land  with  J4  R-  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  both  feet,  with  side-flinging  of  arms  and  legs. 
Run,  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  on  R.  foot. 
Run,  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  on  L.  foot. 
Run,  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  on  L.  foot. 
Run,  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  on  R.  foot. 
Run,  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  on  both  feet  with  y2  L.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  on  both  feet  with  y2  R.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  on  both  feet  with  y2  R.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  on  both  feet  with  y2  L.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  both  feet,  land  on  both  feet  with  y2  L.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  both  feet,  land  on  both  feet  with  y2  R.  turn. 
Standing  high  jump  to  L.  (L.  side  to  the  bar). 
Standing  high  jump  to  R.  (R.  side  to  the  bar). 
Oblique  running  high  jump,  from  L.  foot. 
Oblique  running  high  jump,  from  R.  foot. 
Run,  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  on  L.  foot  with  y2  L.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  on  R.  foot  with  y2  R.  turn. 
Run,  jump  from  L.  foot,  land  on  both  feet  \vith  y2  L.  turn  and  backw.  roll. 
Run,  jump  from  R.  foot,  land  on  both  feet  with  y2  R.  turn  and  backw.  roll. 
Run,  jump  from  both  feet  with  side-flinging  of  arms  and  legs  and  l/2  L. 

turn. 
Run,  jump  from  both  feet  with  side-flinging  of  arms  and  legs  and  y2  R. 

turn. 

Standing  high  jump  forw. 

Standing  high  jump  forw.  with  side-flinging  of  arms  and  legs. 
Run,  hurdle  from  L.  foot. 
Run,  hurdle  from  R.  foot. 
Pike  dive. 

Competitive  running  high  jump,  any  style. 
Most  of  the  above  jumps  may  also  be  done  from  a  springboard. 


APPENDIX  247 

Broad  Jumps. 

One  standing  hop  forw.  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

One  standing  step  forw.  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

One  standing  jump  forw.  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

One  standing  broad  jump. 

One  standing  side  jump,  L.  and  R. 

One  standing  jump  backw. 

Two  standing  hops  forw.  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Two  standing  steps  forw.  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

One  standing  hop  and  step,  starting  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

One  standing  step  and  hop,  starting  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

One  standing  hop  and  jump,  starting  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

One  standing  step  and  jump,  starting  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Two  standing  broad  jumps. 

Two  standing  side  jumps  L.  and  R. 

Two  standing  hops  backw.,  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Standing  hop,  step  and  jump,  starting  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Three  standing  hops  forw.,  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Three  standing  broad  jumps. 

Two  standing  jumps  backward. 

One  running  hop,  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

One  running  step,  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Three  standing  jumps  to  L.  and  R. 

Two  running  hops,  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Two  running  steps,  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 

Running  broad  jump  from  L.  and  R.  foot.     (Do  not  try  for  great  distance, 

unless  landing  on  spring  mattress.) 
Running  hop  and  step,  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Running  step  and  jump,  from  L.  and  R  foot. 
Running  hop,  step  and  jump  from  L.  and  R.  foot. 
Running  broad  jump  with  full  L.  turn,  from  L.  foot. 
Running  broad  jump  with  full  R.  turn,  from  R.  foot. 

Tumbling. 

Forw.  roll,  hands  on  mat. 

Forw,  roll,  hands  on  insteps. 

Forw.  roll,  forearms  and  elbows  on  mat. 

Backw.  roll. 

Forw.  roll  with  one  hand  on  hip. 

Forw.  roll  with  both  hands  on  hips. 

Head  stand,  roll  over  forw. 

Forw.  roll,  followed  by  backw.  roll. 

Handstand  (with  assistance  at  first). 

Cartwheel  L.  and  R. 

Running  dive  from  one  foot. 

Backw.  roll  to  head  stand. 

Handstand,  walk  forw. 

Running  dive  from  both  feet. 

Two  cartwheels  L.  and  R. 

From  lying  position :   raise  legs  and  "snap"  up  to  standing  pos.,  using 

hands  behind  head. 

Same  as  preceding,  with  hands  on  knees. 
Handspring  over  rolled  up  mat. 


248  GYMNASTIC  TEACHING 

Hand-and-head  spring  from  rolled  up  mat. 

Combined   forw.   and  backw.   roll   by  two   pupils,   grasping  each   other's 

ankles. 

Running  dive  from  one  foot,  or  both  feet,  for  distance. 
From  lying  pos. :  "snap"  up  to  standing  pos.,  arms  folded. 
Handspring  from  knees  of  pupil  lying  on  his  back. 

Handstand,  drop  to  head  stand,  roll  over  and  "snap"  up  to  standing  pos. 
Running  dive,  fall  back  and  snap  up  to  standing  pos. 
Cartwheel  and  handspring. 
Forw.  somersault  (with  belt). 
Backw.  handspring  (with  belt). 
Backw.  somersault  (with  belt). 


REFERENCES. 

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Bancroft,  J.  H.  Posture  of  School  Children.  Macmillan  Co.,  New  York, 
1913. 

Bancroft,  J.  H.  The  Place  of  Automatism  in  Gymnastic  Exercise.  Ameri- 
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Bancroft,  J.  H.  Some  Educational  Aspects  of  Physical  Education. 
American  Physical  Education  Review,  April,  1910. 

Beevor,  Chas.  E.  Representation  of  Movement  in  the  Central  Nervous 
System.  Croomian  Lectures.  Adlard  &  Son,  London,  1904. 

Blake,  C.  J.  The  Spirit  of  a  Profession.  Boston  Normal  School  of  Gym- 
nastics, 1905. 

Bolin,  J.  What  is  Gymnastics?  New  York,  1902.  Why  Do  We  Teach 
Gymnastics?  New  York,  1903.  Mental  Growth  through  Physical 
Education. 

Bowen,  W.  P.  Teacher's  Course  in  Physical  Training.  G.  Wahr,  Ann 
Arbor,  1909. 

Brumbaugh,  M.  G.  Educational  Annals,  1911  and  1912.  Macmillan  Co.,. 
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Burnham,  W.  H.  Hygiene  of  Physical  Education.  American  Physical 
Education  Association,  Springfield,  Mass. 

Cornell,  G.,  and  Berry,  E.  Marching  Tactics  Applied  to  Gymnastic 
Work.  Seminar  Publishing  Co.,  Springfield,  Mass. 

Dearborn,  G.  V.  N.  Attention;  Some  of  Its  Aspects  and  Application  to 
Physical  Education.  American  Physical  Education  Review,  Novem- 
ber, 1910-March,  1911. 

Dearborn,  G.  V.  N.  Nerve  Mechanism  of  Voluntary  Movements.  Ameri- 
can Physical  Education  Review,  May,  1912. 

Demenij,  G.  Precision  in  Physical  Training.  Popular  Science  Monthly, 
February,  1891. 

Demenij,  G.     Les  bases  scientifique  de  1'education  physique. 

Demenij,  G.  Education  et  harmonie  des  mouvements.  Felix  Alcan, 
Paris,  1904. 

Fitch,  J.  G.     Lectures  on  Teaching.     Macmillan  Co.,  New  York,  1900. 

Goldthwaite,  J.  E.  The  Relation  of  Posture  to  Human  Efficiency.  Bos- 
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Gulick,  L.  H.  Physical  Education  through  Muscular  Exercise.  Blakis- 
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Gymnastic  Nomenclature.     Association  Press,  New  York,  1912. 

Hall,  S.     Adolescence.     D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York,  1904. 

Hall,  S.  Youth  and  Education,  Regimen  and  Hygiene.  D.  Appleton  & 
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Hartwell,  E.  M.  Physical  Education  Report  of  U.  S.  Commissioner  of 
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Larned,  C.  W.  Athletics  from  an  Historical  and  Educational  Standpoint. 
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INDEX. 


Abdominal  exercises,  character  of    106 

progressive  lists  of  217 

progression  of  types   159 

Active  gymnastic  position  54 

Adaptation  of  work  to  conditions  88 

Admonitions    63 

Aims  and  values  of  gymnastics   82 

hygienic    83 

educational,    including    general    motor    and    posture    training, 

useful  forms  of  agility,  etc 83-87 

Alignment  and  open  order,  methods  of 32 

All-round  character  of  gymnastic  lesson 122 

Anticipation  of  command,  due  to   faulty  delivery,  insufficient  pause, 

too  even  intervals,  etc 47 

induced   by  teacher   doing  the  movement 

while  delivering  final  command  48 

Apparatus  exercises,  general  principles  of  progression    . .' 166 

progression  by  classes  and  types 167 

progressive  lists,  for  men  232 

progressive  lists,  for  women   225 

terminology  of    223 

Apparatus  work  in  the  gymnastic  lesson   126 

Arch  flexions  or  span  bendings  101 

Arching  movements,  character  of  96 

progressive  list  of   207 

progression  of  types  147 

teaching  of  101 

Arm  movements,  progressive  list  of  220 

Arm  support  exercises,  character    of    114 

progressive  list  of   220 

progression  of  types   171 

Arrangement  of  gymnastic  lesson,  general   122 

free-standing  exercises  in  lesson  123 

Attention    19 

Attention  and  interest   23 

dependent  on  correct  technique  23 

focused  by  pause  in  command  46 

how  to  hold  through  proper  guidance  of  class 

work     24 

how  to  secure  at  the  beginning  of  the  lesson  .  20 

lack  of,  loss  of   22,  24 

special  ways  of  stimulating 24 

when  speaking  to  the  class  22 

"Attention!"  command  for  fundamental  position   21,  55,  56 

Back  and  shoulder  blade  exercises,  character  of    107 

progressive  list  of  215 

Back  movements,  general,  character  of    109 

progression  of  types  155 

Balance  exercises,  character  of   1 10 

progressive  list  of   218 

progression  of  types   161 


252  INDEX 


Bar  bell  drill,  sample  series  of  exercises  201 

Beginning  of  the  lesson :  getting  the  attention  20 

Boom,  see  progressive  lists  of  exercises  on  high,  low,  double  and 

saddle  boom    226-228 

Box,  see  vaulting  box  229 

Breathing  exercises,  class  of,  character  of   117 

value  of   118 

Broad  jumps,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men  247 

progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women  232 

Buck,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men  241 

progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women  230 

Causes  of  faulty  execution  of  exercise  68 

Character  of  definite  gymnastic  exercises 5 

Charges,  character  of    109 

progressive  list  of  221 

progression  of  types   163 

Circles,  terminology  of   225 

Classification  of  gymnastic  exercises   91 

Commands,  general  topic   38 

as  expressing  personality    41,  42 

consistent  use  of 42 

different  kinds,  and  methods  of  making 39-41 

essential   features  of    38 

executionary  or  final  part  of  command  49,  54 

following  each  other  too  rapidly  43 

for  combined  movements   41 

for  compound  movements   41 

for  rhythmic  exercises    39 

for  single  movement 40 

for  simple  and  compound  movements  40 

for  stopping  rhythmic  exercises 52 

insufficient  pause  in 47 

intonation  and  inflexion  of  49,  54 

numerals  used  as  40 

pause  in    46 

preparatory 45,  54 

recalls    43 

stimulating  attention — making  pupils  not  only  hear,  but 

listen    42 

summary    54 

superfluous    44 

technique  of    45 

voice  and  enunciation  in  delivering 42,  54 

Commendation  and  praise   30 

Combination  and  alternation  of  movements  in  relation  to  progression     135 

Compound,  combined  and  composite  movements  133 

Compensatory  movements,  character  of    102 

progressive  list  of   209 

progression  of  types   150 

See    also    general    back    and    abdominal 

exercises   155,  159 

Complexity  and  progression  132,  133 

Content  and  character  of  gymnastic  lesson 118 

Control  and  class  management     

how  to  secure  and  maintain  control       13 


INDEX  253 


Cooperation,  spirit  of    8 

Correction  of  faulty  execution  of  exercises 66 

general,  addressed  to  class  as  a  whole  69 

individual    70 

manual    71 

Counting,  as  used  for  commands 40,  47,  49 

as  used  for  marking  time 48,  50,  51,  52 

Cues  _    62 

Definite  exercises,  character,  aims  and  values 5,  77 

methods  of  teaching  78 

repeated  rhythmically   79 

sample  lessons   178 

Definiteness  in  gymnastics   4 

Demonstration  method  of  presentation  60 

Descriptive  method  of  presentation 61 

Discipline 16 

Dismounts,  terminology  of  224 

Distribution  of  class  on  the  floor   32 

Distribution  of  work  in  gymnastic  lesson  119 

Divisions  of  gymnastic  lesson,  proportion  of  time  in  each 123 

Doing  the  exercises  with   the  class    26 

leading  to  anticipation  of  command 48 

Double  boom,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women  227 

Dumb  bell  drill,  sample  series  of  exercises 200 

Educational  aims  and  values  of  gymnastics  83 

Equalization  of  circulation  in  beginning  of  gymnastic  lesson 121 

Essentials  for  successful  teaching   9 

Executionary  command — imperative  verb ;  numerals   49,  50 

Experience,  learning  by   9 

Facings  during  lesson  to  facilitate  execution  of  exercise 37 

Faulty  execution  of  exercise,  causes  of  68 

correction   of    66 

Faulty  posture   97 

Final  or  executionary  part  of  command  49,  54 

Fixation  of  the  shoulder  girdle  108 

Foot  placings,  heel  raisings,  etc.,  progressive  lists 203 

Formations  and  distribution  of  class  on  the  floor 32 

Formation,  variation  of,  by  facings  during  lesson  36,  37 

Free-standing  exercises,  progressive  lists  of    203 

progression  of  types  in  the  various  classes.     141 

the  series  of,  in  the  gymnastic  lesson 123 

Free-standing  jumps,  toe  jumps,  etc.,  progressive  list  of  222 

Friendly  relations  between  teacher  and  class 28 

Fundamental  gymnastic  position   55 

General  correction    69 

General  principles  of  teaching  9 

Getting  in  touch  with  the  class   15 

Guiding  class  work  so  as  to  hold  active  attention  24 

Gymnastics,  place  of,  in  physical  education  2 

aims  and  values  of   82 

object  of   4 

Gymnastic  lesson,  content  and  character  of   118 

summary     127 

progression  within  129 

progression  from  lesson  to  lesson  129,  177 


254  INDEX 


Gymnastic  lessons,  progression  as  applied  to  177 

sample  progression  of   178 

series  of,  for  first  year  high  school  girls  178 

second  year  high  school  girls  181 

first  year  high  school  boys  183 

second  year  high  school  boys 187 

first  year  college  women  192 

second  year  college  women 194 

first  year  college  men  196 

second  year  college  men 199 

Gymnastic  systems   3 

Heel  raising,  etc.,  progressive  list  of  exercises  203 

High  boom,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women 226 

High  horizontal  bar,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men 235 

High  jumps,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men  246 

progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women  231 

Hollow  back,  as  a  fault  in  execution  of  arching  movements 99,  103 

how  to  correct  73,  100 

Horizontal  bar,  see  high  and  low  horizontal  bar 235,  238 

Horizontal  ladder,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men 232 

progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women 225 

Horizontal  vaults,  see  vaults,  terminology  of  225 

Horse,  see  side  horse  and  long  horse 230,  240 

Hygienic  aims  and  values  of  gymnastics   83 

as  represented  in  the  gymnastic  lesson 120 

as  represented  in  the  indefinite,  rhythmic  exercises...       75 

Imitation  contrasted  with  demonstration 62 

method  of  presentation   61 

resulting  from  teacher  doing  the  exercises  with  the  class 

and  anticipating  the  command 27,  48 

Imperative  verb  as  final  command   40 

"In  place  rest!"  the  command  for  the  relaxed  position 58 

Incentives   '. 13 

Indefinite  gymnastic  exercises,  character  of  6,  74 

values  represented  by   75 

methods  of  teaching 76 

sample  series  for  gymnastic  lesson  . .     196 

Individual  correction   70 

Instruction   59 

Interest    15 

and  attention    23 

of  teacher  in  pupils  30 

"Introduction"  of  work  to  the  class 15 

Jumping  and  vaulting,  character  of 1 14 

progression  of  types  and  apparatus 173 

Jumps,  high  and  broad,  progressive  lists  of,  for  men  246,  247 

progressive  lists  of,  for  women 231,  232 

Jumps,  terminology  of  2?4 

Jumps,  toe  jumps,  etc.,  progressive  list  of  222 

Knee  bending,  foot  placines.  etc.,  progressive  list  of  205 

Ladder,  see  horizontal  ladder,  window  ladder  and  rope  ladders. 

Lateral  trunk  exercises,  character  of    104 

progressive  lists  of 211,  213 

progression  of  types    150 

Leadership  and  friendly  relations 26 


INDEX  255 

PAGE 

Leg  and  arm  movements,  character  of  94 

progressive  lists  of  203,  205 

progression  of  types  141 

Lesson,  gymnastic,  content  and  character  of 118 

Lesson  plan,  general  arrangement  and  modifications   122 

Lessons,  progression  of    177 

sample  progressive   178 

"Limbering  up,"  preparatory  work  in  gymnastic  lesson  120 

Long  horse,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women  230 

Low  boom,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women 227 

Low  horizontal  bar,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men 238 

Lumbar  hyperextension  in  arching  movements,  etc 99,  103 

Manual  correction  71 

Marching,  see  formations  and  order  movements 32,  93 

Marking  time,  guiding  rhythm,  by  counting  48,  50 

Men's  apparatus  exercises   232 

Methods  and  technique   32 

of  correcting    69 

formation  and  distribution  of  class  on  the  floor 32 

making  commands    39 

opening  order  32 

presentation  of  exercises   60 

teaching  different  kinds  of  work 74 

using    commands     41 

Mistakes,  acknowledgment  of  30 

Modifications  of  outline  of  free-standing  series  in  lesson 124 

Motor  training,  subjective  and  objective  84,  85 

Mounts,  terminology  of   224 

Movements  for  the  arms  and  legs,  class    of    94 

progressive  lists  of   203 

progression  of  types  141 

Nomenclature,   see   terminology    138,  223 

Numerals,  used  as  commands  40 

for  marking  time,  guiding  rhythm   48,  51 

incorrectly  as  command   47 

Obedience    14 

Object  of  gymnastics    4 

Objective   motor   training    84 

Observation  of  class  work  by  teacher,  systematic 67 

Open  order,  methods   32 

Order  exercises,  character  of  82 

Organic  stimulation,  progressive,  in  gymnastic  lesson  120 

represented  in  rhythmic  indefinite  exercises 75 

Outline,  general,  of  gymnastic  lesson  as  a  whole  122 

of  series  of  free-standing  exercises  123 

Parallel  bars,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men  243 

progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women 231 

suspended,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men 233 

Participation  in  class  work  by  the  teacher  26,  27,  48 

Pause  in  the  command  46 

Personality  of  the  teacher   8,  10,  12 

as  expressed  in  "power  of  command"  ...       41 

Personal  relations  between  teacher  and  class 28 

Place  of  gymnastics  in  physical  education 2 

Popularity  of  the  teacher  28 


256  INDEX 


Posture,  factors  which  determine   96 

incorrect  or  faulty   91 

of  shoulder  girdle  108 

Posture  training  as  a  part  of  subjective  motor  training  86 

in  arching  movements   98 

represented  by  shoulder  blade  exercises  108 

Praise  and  commendation   30 

Precipitant  exercises,  see  jumping  and  vaulting  114 

Preparation,  of  teacher  before  giving  the  lesson  59 

Preparatory  command    45,  54 

Preparing  the  pupils'  minds  for  the  work  16 

Presentation  of  the  exercise :  explanation,  demonstration,  etc 60 

demonstration  method    61 

descriptive  method  60 

combination  of  the  above 62 

imitation  method   61,  62 

Principles,  general     9 

and  methods,  need  for  knowledge  of  10 

of  progression  of  apparatus  exercises  166 

of  progression  of  free-standing  exercises  131,  141 

of  selection  of  exercises  90 

Progression    128 

as  applied  to  gymnastic  lessons 129,  177 

from  lesson  to  lesson  129 

from  indefinite  to  definite  style  of  work 129 

of  apparatus  exercises   130,  166,  225 

of  free-standing  exercises   129,  131,  141,  203 

and    repetition    130 

Progression,  principles  of,  as  applied  in  education  1 

as  applied  in  the  various  classes  and  types 

of   free-standing  exercises    141 

as  applied  to  different  classes  and  types  of 

apparatus  exercises    167 

Progressive  gymnastic  lessons    178 

lists  of  apparatus  exercises   225,  232 

lists  of  free-standing  exercises  203 

Progressive  organic  activity  in  the  gymnastic  lesson 120 

Recreational  aspect  of  gymnastics  88 

Redistribution  of  the  blood  by  the  exercises  in  the  gymnastic  lesson.  121 

Relations  between  teacher  and  class  28 

Relaxed  gymnastic  position   

command    for    58 

use   of 58 

when  not  to  use  59 

Repetition  in  relation  to  progression   130 

Respiratory  exercises,  character  of  117 

Rests,  terminology  of    224 

Rhythm  and  definiteness  in  gymnastic  exercises  79 

of  movements  in  relation  to  progression  136 

Rhythmic  gymnastic  exercises,  how  to  start  and  guide  51 

how  to  stop 52 

Rope  ladders,  progressive  lists  of  exercises  for  women 229 

Ropes,  see  vertical  ropes   228,  234 

Running  and  running  games,  class  of  exercises 1 16 

value  of   117 


INDEX  257 

PAGE 

Running  in  the  gymnastic  lesson  127 

Sample  progression  of  gymnastic  lessons  178 

Saddle  boom,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women 228 

Selection  of  gymnastic  exercises     90 

principles  of,  as  applied  in  education 1 

Shoulder  blade  exercises,  use  in  posture  training  108 

use   and   excessive   use   in   the   gymnastic 

lesson    126 

Shoulder  blade  movements,  character  of   107 

progressive  list  of  (arm  exercises)   220 

Side  bending,  etc.,  progressive  list  of  213 

Side  horse,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men 240 

progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women 230 

"Sliding"  from  command  repetition  to  rhythmic  repetition 47 

Span  bendings  or  true  arch  flexions  101 

Special  technical  training  of  teachers,  need  for  11 

Special  ways  of  stimulating  a  class 24 

Speed  of  movement  in  relation  to  progression  136 

Spirit  of  cooperation  8 

of  teaching  » 8 

Starting  an  exercise  incorrectly,  through  faulty  command,  leading  to 

false  start,  etc 47 

Starting  of  rhythmic  exercises    51 

Starting  positions,  in  relation  to  progression  137 

terminology  and  definition  of   138 

variation  of,  in  the  gymnastic  lesson  126 

Stimulating  attention  of  class  in  special  ways 24 

Stimulation    64 

Stopping  an  exercise,  commands  for 52 

Style  of  work 74 

Subj  ective  motor  training   85 

Suggestion  and  example  26 

Supplementary  instruction    63 

Suspended  parallel  bars,  progressive  list  of  exercises 233 

Suspension  exercises,  character    of    Ill 

progression  of  types  and  apparatus  167 

Systems,   gymnastic    3 

Systematic  observation  of  class  work  by  teacher 67 

Swing  jumps     •. 177 

a  type  of  suspension  exercises,  progressive  list 170 

Tactics,  see  formations,  and  order  exercises  32,  93 

Teacher,  personality   of    8,  10,  12 

"power  of  command"  of   41 

popularity  of  28 

interest  of  teacher  in  pupils  30 

Teaching,  spirit    of    8 

essentials  for  successful  9 

Technique  of  commands  45 

of  teaching  in  relation  to  attention  of  class 23 

Terminology  of  apparatus  exercises    223 

derived  starting  position  138 

simple  free-standing  movements   138 

Totality  in  the  gymnastic  lesson  122 

Trunk  twistings,  progressive  list  of  211 

Tumbling,  progressive  list  of  exercises 247 


258  INDEX 


Turns,  terminology  of  225 

Twisting,  see  trunk  twisting  211 

Types  of  exercises,  their  relative  difficulty  in  relation  to  progression  .  131 

Unison,  failure  of,  because  of  faulty  command 47 

Variety  of  selection,  combination  and  arrangement  of  exercises  of 

free-standing  series  in  gymnastic  lesson 125 

of  starting  positions  in  gymnastic  lesson  126 

Vaulting  box,  progressive  list  of  exercises  'for  women 229 

Vaults,  horizontal  and  vertical,  terminology  of   225 

Vertical  ropes,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  men   234 

progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women  228 

"Warming  up,"  introductory  exercises  in  gymnastic  lesson   119 

Will  power  and  obedience 14 

Window  ladder,  progressive  list  of  exercises  for  women  228 

Women's   apparatus   exercises    225 

Working  with  the  class,  to   stimulate   attention    25 

leading   to    anticipation    of    command    and 

imitation                 48 


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